Law

The first legal society, the New York Bar Association, is founded in New York City.

Science

German chemist A. S. Marggraf (1709-1782) discovers sugar in beetroot.

Science

Mark Catesby (1683-1749) publishes "On Migration," writing about migrating birds; he is later called the “Father of American Ornithography.”

Medicine

Epidemic: A measles epidemic sweeps through Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, and South Carolina.

Medicine

James Lind (1716 – 1794) discovers that citrus fruits prevent scurvy.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: English poet Thomas Gray (1716-1771) publishes "Ode on a Distant Prospect of Eton College," containing the lines, “Where ignorance is bliss,/’Tis folly to be wise.”

Arts and Letters

Samuel Johnson (1709-1784) publishes “A Plan of a Dictionary of the English Language.”

Arts and Letters

William Stith (1689-1755) publishes "The History of the First Discovery and Settlement of Virginia," one of the most accurate accounts of a colonial settlement, covering the years to 1624.

Economics

The Ohio Company is formed to extend colonial settlements of Virginia westward; rivalry for the West, especially for the upper Ohio Valley, increases between France and Great Britain.

Popular Culture

The Drury Lane Theatre begins to flourish under David Garrick (1717-1779).

Government

Halifax, Nova Scotia, is founded by the British.

Science

John Mitchell (1690-1768) is the first to accurately describe the lifestyle and pouch of the opossum.

Science

Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) relates the functions of unknown quantities in equations.

Science

Maria Agnesi (1718-1799) discusses analysis in "Instituzioni Analitiche ad Uso della Gioventu Italiana."

Medicine

English physician John Fothergill (1712-1780) describes diphtheria.

Education

Libraries: A circulating library opens in Charleston, SC.

Ideas

Charles de Secondat, Baron of Montesquieu (1689-1755), publishes his "Spirit of Laws."

Ideas

David Hume (1711-1776) publishes "An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding."

Jefferson, Martha

Martha Wayles (1748-1782), future wife of President Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), is born on October 30 in Charles City County, Virginia.

Economics

Platinum arrives in Europe from South America.

Economics

The Dutch begin to trade on Africa’s east coast.

Discovery

Excavation begins at Pompeii.

Sports

Cricket: Court of King’s Bench rules that “cricket is a legal sport.”

Government

Georgia becomes a Crown Colony.

Inventions

Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) invents the lightning rod, installing one on his Philadelphia house.

Education

Special Education: Giacobbo Rodriguez Pereira (1715-1780) invents sign language for deaf-mutes.

Education

Children''s Books: Sarah Fielding (1710-1768), sister of Henry Fielding (1707-1754), publishes "The Governess," the first English novel written expressly for children.

Education

Higher Education: The Philadelphia Academy is founded; it becomes the University of Pennsylvania in 1791.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Henry Fielding (1707-1754) writes "A History of Tom Jones, a Foundling."

Ideas

Education of Women: Dorothea Erxleben (1715-1762) publishes "Rational Thoughts on Education of the Fair Sex," advocating university study for women.

Economics

The Ohio Company makes its first settlement around the forks of the Ohio River.

Social Issues

Slavery: Black slavery is legalized in Georgia.

Government

The British Parliament passes The Iron Act, limiting the growth of the iron industry in the American Colonies

Science

Higher Education: Maria Agnesi (1718-1799) is named honorary professor of mathematics at the University of Bologna

Science

Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille (1713-1762), French astronomer, plots 10,000 Southern Hemisphere stars.

Science

Thomas Wright (1711-1786) discusses galaxies and the shape of the Milky Way in "An Original Theory or New Hypothesis of the Universe."

Education

Education of Women: The word "bluestocking," is used as a put-down for learned women

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Thomas Gray (1716-1771) writes "Elegy Written in a Country Church Yard."

Arts and Letters

Neoclassicism as a reaction against baroque and rococo styles spreads over Europe.

Ideas

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) attacks science and art as tools of the rich in "Discours sur les sciences et les arts."

Ideas

David Hume (1711-1776) publishes "Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals."

Washington, Martha

Martha Dandridge (1731-1802) marries Daniel Parke Custis (1711-1757). They moves to his plantation, called White House, 33 miles from Williamsburg.

Economics

The first American coal mine opens on the James River in Virginia.

Economics

Movable type for printing music comes into use.

Economics

The population of Europe is approximately 140 million.

Economics

U. S. Population: Over a million people live in colonial America.

Daily Life

Transportation: The river flatboat and the Conestoga wagon first appear in Pennsylvania.

Sports

Cricket: The Humbledon Cricket Club is founded in England.

Sports

Horse Racing: The English Jockey Club is founded in London to promote the sport of horse racing.

Popular Culture

American Theatre: The first playhouse opens in New York City.

Religion

The Great Awakening: The first Great Awakening ends when Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758) is forced to resign from his church in Northampton, MA because of his emphasis on the sinful nature of man.

Reform

American Protest Music: “Yankee Doodle” is written during the American Revolution by Dr. Richard Schuckburg.

Government

Britain passes the British Calendar Act, which places England and its colonies on the Gregorian Calendar beginning in 1752.

Government

Presidents: James Madison (1751-1836), fourth President of the U.S., is born in Port Conway, Virginia.

Science

Benjamin Franklin (1706-1791) publishes "Experiments and Observations on Electricity," using the terms positive and negative for the first time.

Education

Higher Education: Calculus is introduced into the Harvard curriculum by John Winthrop, Jr.

Education

Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) helps found the first “English Academy” in Philadelphia.

Washington, Martha

Daniel Parke Custis, Jr. (1751-1754), first son of Martha and Daniel Parke Custis, is born.

Economics

The Ohio Company actively colonizes in the Ohio Valley.

Economics

The first sugar cane grown in America is introduced in Louisiana by Catholic missionaries; it is used to make a kind of rum.

Daily Life

The 4th edition of Hannah Glasse’s (1708-1770) cookbook is printed.

Daily Life

Dancing: The minuet becomes Europe’s fashionable dance.

Sports

Cricket: The first cricket match is held in New York City.

Popular Culture

Tobias Smollett (1721-1771) writes "The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle."

Reform

Mental Health Movement: The first mental asylums appear in London.

Government

Great Britain adopts the Gregorian calendar on Sept. 14 (Sept. 3-13 is omitted).

War

French and Indian: The French begin building forts across Pennsylvania and into Ohio to stop British invasion of their territory.

Science

Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) performs his famous kite experiment, proving that lightning is electricity.

Science

René Antoine Réaumur (1683-1757) identifies gastric juices and their role in digestion.

Medicine

Thomas Bond (1712-1784) establishes the first general hospital in the colonies in Philadelphia, treating all except those with incurable or infectious diseases.

Education

St. Matthew Lutheran School, one of the first Lutheran 'parish schools' in North America is founded in New York City by Henry Melchior Muhlenberg (1711-1787).

Ideas

David Hume (1711-1776) writes "Political Discourses."

Economics

An early fire insurance company is founded in Pennsylvania by Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790).

Religion

Missionaries first arrive at the Cape Colony, South Africa.

Government

Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) and William Hunter are appointed as postmasters general for the American Colonies.

War

French and Indian: French troops from Canada seize the Ohio Valley in action leading up to the French and Indian War.

Science

Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) publishes "Species Plantarum," establishing the names of plant species.

Medicine

John Lining (1708-1760) publishes a detailed description of yellow fever.

Education

Museums: The British Museum in London is granted a royal foundation charter, and begins its collection with 50,000 volumes, thousands of manuscripts, coins, and other artifacts left to England by London physician Sir Hans Slone.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Charlotte Lennox’s (1720-1804) "Shakespear Illustrated," a pioneering study of Shakespeare’s sources, is published.

Washington, Martha

Frances Parke Custis (1753-1757), first daughter of Martha and Daniel Parke Custis, is born.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: First steam engine arrives in the colonies from England.

Daily Life

The Liberty Bell is recast after it arrived from Europe with a crack in it; it cracked again after this casting.

Sports

Horse Racing: The Jockey Club establishes a permanent track for horse racing at Newmarket, in London.

Religion

Judaism: English Act of Parliament permits naturalization of Jews.

War

French and Indian: The French and Indian War begins as Britain declares war on France in the American colonies.

Science

Scottish chemist Joseph Black (1728-1799) discovers carbonic acid gas.

Medicine

Women's Firsts: Dorothea Erxleben (1715-1762) graduates from the University of Halle, the first woman to obtain a medical degree from a German university.

Medicine

James Lind (1716-1794) publishes a paper that proves that citrus juice can be an effective way to combat scurvy.

Inventions

African American Inventors: Benjamin Bannecker (1731-1806) makes the first clock built entirely in America.

Education

Higher Education: King’s College in New York City is founded; it becomes Columbia University in 1784.

Arts and Letters

Architecture: The Winter Palace in St. Petersburg is completed by Italian architect Bartolomeo Rastrelli (1700-1771).

Washington, Martha

Daniel Parke Custis, Jr. (1751-1754), son of Martha and Daniel Parke Custis, dies.

Washington, Martha

John "Jacky" Parke Custis (1754-1781), second son of Martha and Daniel Parke Custis, is born.

Sports

Golf: St. Andrew’s Royal and Ancient Golf Club is founded in Scotland.

War

French and Indian: British General Edward Braddock (c.1695-1755) takes command of all English forces in America during the French and Indian War. He is mortally wounded in an ambush near Fort Duquesne in western Pennsylvania.

War

French and Indian: Twenty-three year-old George Washington (1732-1799) assumes command of the retreating army of British and colonial troops

Technology

The first steam engine in America is installed to pump water from a mine.

Education

Higher Education: The first Russian institution of higher education, Moscow State University, is founded

Arts and Letters

Samuel Johnson (1709-1784) begins his work on "The Dictionary of the English Language."

Ideas

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), publishes his "Discourse upon the Origin and Foundation of Inequality Among Mankind" (Second Discourse).

Daily Life

Maps of Virginia and the Middle British Colonies are printed.

Daily Life

Sir Harry Frankland (1716-1768) marries his mistress, Agnes Surriage (1726-1783), according to legend, after she saves him from being buried alive following an earthquake.

War

120 British soldiers are imprisoned and die in India (“Black Hole of Calcutta”).

War

French and Indian: The French and Indian War is formally declared; the French under General Louis Montcalm (1712-1759) capture and destroy British colonial Fort Oswego in New York and drive Britain from the Great Lakes in North America.

Ideas

Edmund Burke (1729-1797) writes "Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful."

Washington, Martha

Martha "Patsy" Parke Custis (1756-1773), second daughter of Martha and Daniel Parke Custis, is born.

Economics

Transportation: A stagecoach line is established between Philadelphia and New York City

Economics

The first chocolate factory is opened in Germany.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The "New Hampshire Gazette," one of the longest running newspapers in America, is established.

Daily Life

Louis François du Plessis, the Duc de Richelieu (1696-1788) invents mayonnaise.

Daily Life

Fashion: Cotton velvets are first made in England.

Government

William Pitt (1708-1778) becomes England's Secretary of State.

Government

Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) is sent to London as a representative of the Pennsylvania legislature to negotiate for the heirs of William Penn.

War

French and Indian: William Pitt (1708-1778) escalates the War in the colonies by establishing a policy of unlimited warfare.

Ideas

David Hume (1711-1776) publishes "The Natural History of Religion."

Washington, Martha

Frances Parke Custis (1753-1757), first daughter of Martha and Daniel Parke Custis, dies.

Washington, Martha

Daniel Parke Custis (1711-1757) dies, leaving Martha a 26-year-old, very wealthy widow with two young children to raise.

Daily Life

The first street lights—whale-oil lamps designed by Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790)—are used on a few streets in Philadelphia.

Popular Culture

The first public concert is held in Philadelphia.

Government

Presidents: James Monroe (1758-1831) 5th President of the U.S., is born on April 28, in Westmoreland County, Virginia.

War

French and Indian: English forces at Lake George, New York, lose nearly two thousand men during a frontal attach against well-entrenched French forces at Fort Ticonderoga; French losses are 377.

War

French and Indian: George Washington (1732-1799) and General John Forbes (1710-1759) take Fort Duquesne, later renamed Pittsburgh.

Inventions

A hose-knitting machine is invented.

Inventions

John Dolland (1706-1761) reinvents the achromatic lens.

Education

African American Education: A school for Negroes is established in Philadelphia by the Anglican missionary group.

Arts and Letters

Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809) writes his first symphony.

Washington, Martha

Martha Dandridge Custis (1731-1802) becomes engaged to George Washington (1732-1799).

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: An Act of Parliament establishes the Middleton Railway in Leeds.

Daily Life

Native Americans: Molly (Mary) Brant (c.1736-1796), a Mohawk woman, becomes the partner of Sir William Johnson. She is largely responsible for the alliance between the Iroquois and the British.

Daily Life

Native Americans: A raiding party consisting of French and Shawnee warriors takes Mary Jemison (1743-1833) captive. She adopts Native American customs, which she retains all her adult life.

Popular Culture

The first English manual on playing the guitar is published.

Social Issues

Native Americans: The first North American Indian reservation is established on 3,000 acres in New Jersey.

War

French and Indian: The French surrender to the British at Quebec.

Medicine

Epidemic: A measles epidemic breaks out all over North America, wherever white people live.

Education

Museums: The British Museum is opened at Montegu House.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Voltaire (1694-1778) writes "Candide."

Washington, Martha

Martha Dandridge Custis (1731-1802) marries George Washington (1732-1799). The family moves first to Williamsburg, and then to Mount Vernon.

Adams, Abigail

Abigail Smith (1744-1818) is received into her father’s Congregational Church in Weymouth on June 24. Later that summer, she meets John Adams (1735-1826) in her father’s parsonage.

Economics

Irish brewer Arthur Guinness (1725-1803) establishes a brewery in Dublin that will become the world’s largest

Economics

Colonial shipbuilders are producing nearly 400 vessels each year.

Economics

Thomas Penn (1702-1775) and Richard Penn establish the first recorded life insurance company, the Presbyterian Ministers fund, in Philadelphia.

Religion

Judaism: Architecture: Peter Harrison (1716-1775) designs the first U.S. synagugue, the Touro synagogue in Newport, RI.

Government

George III (1738-1820) becomes King of Great Britain, Ireland, and the 1.6 million colonists living in America.

War

French and Indian: British General Lord Jeffrey Amherst (1717-1797) captures Montreal and ends French resistance in Canada; France cedes Quebec to England.

Medicine

New York requires that all physicians and surgeons pass a test and be licensed to practice medicine.

Inventions

Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) invents the first bifocal lenses for eye glasses.

Education

Special Education: The first British school for the deaf is opened by Thomas Braidwood (1715-1806), in Edinburgh.

Education

African American Education: The Bray School for African-American children is established in Williamsburg.

Education

Higher Education: College of William and Mary students petition for better food; they ask for salt and fresh meat for dinner, and desserts 3 times a week.

Arts and Letters

The Royal Society of the Arts is founded in London.

Jefferson, Martha

Thomas Jefferson (1723-1826) enters the College of William and Mary in Virginia.

Economics

Josiah Wedgewood (1730-1795) founds a pottery works at Etruria, Staffordshire, England.

Economics

U.S. Population: The population in the American colonies is estimated at 1.6 million.

Economics

Watermarks are used in woven paper.

Daily Life

Fashion: The first silk hats appear in Florence Italy.

Sports

The first roller skates are introduced in London by musical instrument maker Joseph Merlin (1735-1803).

Popular Culture

The rules of Whist (later to be bridge) are laid down by Edmund Hoyle (1672-1769).

Politics

James Otis (1725-1783) opposes British writs of assistance, claiming they violate the natural rights of the British colonials.

War

French and Indian: General Jeffrey Amherst (1717-1797) forbids presents of food and arms to Indians in the French and Indian War.

War

French and Indian: The Iroquois present a war belt to the Detroit Indians, but it is rejected.

Science

Russian scientist and poet Mikhail V. Lomonosov (1711-1765) discovers the atmosphere of Venus.

Science

Josef Kobreuter, German botanist, recognizes the role of the wind and insects in the pollination of plants.

Science

Chemist Joseph Black (1728-1799) discovers that ice absorbs heat without changing temperature when melting.

Medicine

Epidemic: An epidemic of influenza breaks out in North America and the West Indies.

Washington, Martha

George Washington (1732-1799) begins experimenting with crop rotation, soil fertilization, and livestock management and breeding at Mount Vernon.

Daily Life

The earliest recorded American folk ballad, “Springfield Mountain” is sung in New England.

Social Issues

Slavery: Women''''s Firsts: Slavery: The first black American poet, Phillis Wheatley (c. 1753-1784) is bought as a young child off a Boston slave ship.

Government

Catherine the Great (1729-1796) begins her 34-year reign as Empress of Russia.

Inventions

John Harrison (1693-1776), English inventor, builds a marine chronometer.

Education

Libraries: Higher Education: The library of the Sorbonne is opened in Paris.

Education

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) publishes "The Emile," his major treatise on education.

Ideas

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) publishes "The Social Contract."

Economics

Cast iron is converted into malleable iron for the first time in Scotland.

Economics

Ethan Allen (1738-1789) establishes an ironworks and blast furnace in Connecticut which will make many of the cannons used in the Revolutionary War.

Daily Life

Holidays: The first St. Patrick’s Day parade is held in New York City.

Religion

The Moravians publish a collection of hymns in the language of the Delaware Indians.

Government

The British Proclamation of 1763 forbids the American colonists to settle the land beyond the Appalachian Mountains, and requires those already settled in those regions to return east in an attempt to ease tensions with Native Americans.

War

French and Indian: General Thomas Gage (1721-1787) succeeds Lord Jeffrey Amherst (1717-1797) as head of British forces in America.

War

French and Indian: The Treaty of Paris ends the French and Indian War; France cedes Canada and all its North American territories east of the Mississippi to Great Britain.

Science

Nicole-Reine Lepaute’s (1723-1768) maps and tables showing the precise times and extent of an annular eclipse of the sun across Europe is published by the Academy of Sciences for astronomers and navigators.

Medicine

America’s first medical society is formed in New London, Connecticut.

Medicine

Claudius Aymand (1660-1740) performs the first successful appendectomy.

Medicine

Epidemic: A smallpox epidemic breaks out in Massachusetts.

Technology

The technology of printing is established in all 13 colonies.

Education

Frederick the Great (1712-1786) establishes village schools in Prussia.

Ideas

Voltaire (1694-1778) writes his "Treatise on Tolerance."

Adams, Abigail

A smallpox epidemic interferes with the wedding plans of John Adams and Abigail Smith; John has himself inoculated—a risky procedure—but has only mild effects from the inoculation.

Economics

The first Chambers of Commerce are established in New York and New Jersey.

Discovery

Charles Mason (1730-1787) and Jeremiah Dixon(1733-1779) begin surveying the Mason-Dixon line.

Social Issues

Slavery: The beginning of the free Negro tradition is seen in New England; there are 5214 Negroes in Massachusetts (out of a total population of 235,810).

Politics

At a town meeting in Boston, James Otis (1725-1783) raises the issue of taxation without representation and urges a united response to the recent acts imposed by England.

Government

Great Britain passes the Sugar Act to raise money to pay for the French and Indian War by taxing the colonies on lumber, food, molasses, and rum.

Medicine

Epidemic: A smallpox epidemic sparks the opening of two inoculation hospitals in the Boston area.

Inventions

James Watt (1736-1819) invents the condenser, the first step toward the steam engine.

Inventions

The spinning jenny is invented in England.

Technology

Pierre-Simon Fournier (1712-1768), French engraver and typographer, publishes a work on typefaces and printing.

Education

Higher Education: Brown University is founded in Providence, RI.

Ideas

American James Otis (1725-1783) publishes "The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved."

Adams, Abigail

Abigail Smith (1744-1818) marries John Adams (1735-1826) on October 25, at her father’s parsonage in Weymouth, Massachusetts; she is nineteen and he is twenty-nine.

Madison, Dolley

Dolley Madison’s (1768-1849) father, John Payne, and her mother, Mary Coles Payne, apply to and are accepted into the Society of Friends (Quakers).

Economics

Boston merchants begin a boycott of British luxury goods.

Economics

The first permanent settlement (as a fur-trading post) is established by the French in St. Louis.

Daily Life

The practice of numbering houses is begun in London.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The "Connecticut Courant," perhaps the American newspaper in longest continuing publication, is established in Hartford, CT.

Religion

Dancing: The first minister of the Dutch Reformed Church preaches in New York City; he tries to have dancing banned in the colony.

Law

Sir William Blackstone (1723-1780) publishes "Commentaries on the Laws of England."

Politics

Delegates from nine colonies meet to draw up a declaration of rights and liberties.

Politics

Patrick Henry (1736-1799) presents seven Resolutions to the Virginia House of Burgesses, asserting that only the Virginia Assembly can legally tax Virginia residents; he says, “If this be treason, make the most of it.”

Politics

The Sons of Liberty is formed in many colonial towns; using violence and intimidation, its members eventually force all of the British stamp agents to resign and also stop many American merchants from ordering British goods.

Government

Parliament passes the Stamp Act, taxing all colonists on every paper purchase. In addition, the Quartering Act requires colonists to house and feed British troops.

Medicine

Higher Education: John Morgan (1736-1789) establishes the first medical school in America at the College of Philadelphia.

Inventions

James Watt (1736-1819) designs a steam engine that produces power much more efficiently than the Newcomen engine of 1712.

Technology

Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729-1799) suggests preserving food by means of hermetic sealing.

Education

Higher Education: A College of New Jersey (later, Princeton) student, William Patterson, founds the first college society of arts and letters in America.

Education

Public Education: Latin schools exist in at least 40 of 140 Massachusetts communities with more than 100 families.

Education

Curriculum for well-to-do young Southerners includes Latin, Greek, Hebrew, reading, writing, arithmetic-vulgar, plane geometry, surveying, Italian bookkeeping, and navigation.

Adams, Abigail

A daughter, Abigail – Nabby (1765-1813) – is born to Abigail and John Adams on July 14.

Madison, Dolley

Dolley Madison‘s (1768-1849) parents, John Payne and Mary Coles Payne, move to North Carolina from Virginia.

Economics

Chocolate is first made at Dorchester, Massachusetts.

Economics

Philadelphia, with its agricultural exports, shipbuilding and iron forging, is the leading economic center of the American colonies.

Daily Life

The potato is the most popular foodstuff in Europe.

Daily Life

Newspapers: Mary Katherine Goddard (1738-1816) begins "The Providence Gazette" in Rhode Island.

Sports

Horse Racing: Horse racing becomes popular in Maryland; the course at Annapolis is one of the best in the country.

Politics

New York residents continue to refuse to obey the Quartering Act.

Government

Great Britain repeals the Stamp Act but declares its right to tax the colonies.

Government

The New York legislature is suspended by the British crown.

Science

Henry Cavendish (1731-1810) discovers that hydrogen is less dense than air.

Medicine

The 8-volume "Physiological Elements of the Human Body," a milestone in medicine, is published by Albrecht von Haller (1708-1777).

Inventions

Johann Zumpe (1735-1800) builds the first pianoforte in England.

Education

Higher Education: Queen's College, later Rutgers University, is founded in New Jersey as a Dutch Reformed institution.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Oliver Goldsmith (1728-1774) writes "The Vicar of Wakefield," a novel.

Economics

Transportation: A stagecoach line between New York City and Philadelphia advertises itself as a “flying-machine;” in good weather, trips take two days.

Discovery

Charles Mason (1730-1787) and Jeremiah Dixon (1733-1779) finish surveying the Mason-Dixon Line.

Daily Life

The first paved sidewalk is laid in Westminster, London.

Sports

The first regular fox-hunting group, The Gloucester Fox Hunting Club, is established in New Jersey.

Popular Culture

American Theatre: The first play on an American subject, "Ponteach," or "The Savages of America" is written by Major Robert Rogers (1731-1795).

Popular Culture

American Theatre: An early, permanent playhouse, the Southwark Theatre, is built in Philadelphia.

Religion

Catherine the Great (1729-1796) establishes freedom of worship in Russia.

Religion

The oldest surviving church in Manhattan, St. Paul’s Chapel, is constructed.

Politics

Boston residents agree not to import those items taxed by the Townshend Acts.

Government

With the Townshend Acts, Britain imposes taxes on imports of tea, glass, paper, and dyestuffs.

Government

Presidents: John Quincy Adams (1767-1848), sixth President of the United States, is born on July 11, in Massachusetts.

Government

Presidents: Andrew Jackson (1767-1845), seventh President of the United States, is born in Waxhaw, South Carolina on March 15.

Science

Joseph Priestly (1733-1804) proposes an electrical inverse-square law.

Inventions

The astronomer David Rittenhouse (1732-1796) invents a planetarium.

Education

The first of the weekly numbers of the "Encyclopedia Britannica" is published; 100 are planned.

Education

Higher Education: King’s College in New York City opens the second of America’s medical schools.

Education

Austrian emperor Joseph II (1741-1790) and his mother, Maria Theresa (1717-1780), introduce educational reforms.

Arts and Letters

Essay: Adam Ferguson (1723-1816) publishes "An Essay on the History of Civil Society."

Adams, Abigail

A son, John Quincy (1767-1848), is born to John and Abigail Adams on July 11th.

Jackson, Rachel

Rachel Donelson (1767-1828), future wife of President Andrew Jackson (1767-1845), is born in Virginia on June 15.

Economics

Women''s Firsts: Anne Catherine Hoof Green (c.1720-1775) takes over her late husband''s printing and newspaper business, becoming the first American woman to run a print shop.

Discovery

James Cook (1728-1779) sails on the first circumnavigation of the world; he returns in June 1771.

Discovery

Starting in North Carolina, Daniel Boone (1734-1820) makes his first exploration west of the Appalachian Mountains, traveling along the present-day Kentucky-West Virginia border.

Popular Culture

American Theatre: The first professional production of a native play, 'The Prince of Parthia,' by Thomas Godfrey (1736-1763) is mounted in Philadelphia.

Religion

The Jesuits are expelled from Spain and France.

Politics

Samuel Adams (1722-1803) of Massachusetts writes a Circular Letter opposing taxation without representation.

Politics

Boston citizens refuse to quarter British troops.

Government

The Massachusetts Assembly is dissolved for refusing to assist in the collection of taxes.

Government

Native Americans: treaties are negotiated between Great Britain and the six nations of the Iroquois.

War

Revolutionary War: British troops sail to Boston, and two regiments come ashore to take up quarters in the city.

Medicine

Smallpox inoculations in Norfolk, VA cause riots.

Education

Higher Education: The medical school at Philadelphia College graduates its first physicians.

Arts and Letters

The Royal Academy is founded in London, with painter Joshua Reynolds (1723-1792) as president.

Adams, Abigail

A second daughter, Susanna (1768-1770), is born December 28 to Abigail and John Adams. The Adams family moves to Boston.

Madison, Dolley

Dolley Payne (1768-1849), future wife of President James Madison (1751-1836), is born on May 20 in Guilford County, North Carolina.

Monroe, Elizabeth

Elizabeth Kortright (1768-1830), future Wife of President James Monroe (1758-1831), is born on June 30 in New York City, the first of ten First Ladies born in New York, the "mother state" of presidential wives.

Economics

Sheet music is published and sold in Boston.

Economics

Anne Catherine Green (c.1720-1775) is formally appointed provincial printer for the province of Maryland.

Discovery

Explorer James Cook (1728-1779) investigates islands in the south Pacific, and observes a transit of Venus in order to determine the size of the solar system.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The "Boston Gazette" publishes “The Liberty Song,” possibly America''s first patriotic song.

Religion

The first Methodist Church is established in New York City.

Government

The Privy Council in London decides to retain the duty on tea in the American colonies.

Government

The Virginia Assembly is dissolved.

Government

San Diego is founded by Franciscan Friar Juniper Serra (1713-1784).

Science

Charles Bonnet (1720-1793) suggests an evolutionary theory.

Science

New mathematical symbols, such as pi are introduced by Leonhard Euler (1707-1783).

Science

David Rittenhouse (1732-1796) plots the orbits of Venus and Mercury.

Inventions

James Watt (1736-1819) patents his steam engine.

Inventions

Frenchman Nicholas Cugnot (1725-1804) builds a steam carriage.

Education

The Academie de Coiffure is established in France by Legros de Rumigny, who teaches hairdressing and wig-making skills.

Education

The first day nursery opens at Steintal, Alsace.

Education

Higher Education: Native American Education: Dartmouth College is established to educate Native Americans.

Jefferson, Martha

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) begins building Monticello in Albemarle County, Virginia.

Madison, Dolley

Dolley Payne’s (1768-1849) father, John Payne, moves his wife and family back to his wife's family plantation at Cole's Hill, Virginia.

Economics

The first American-made printing fonts are produced by silversmith Abel Buell (1742-1822).

Economics

Henry William Stiegel (1729-1785) opens his glass works in Manheim, Pennsylvania.

Discovery

Daniel Boone (1734-1820) explores the Cumberland Gap.

Daily Life

The first lightning rod conductors are installed on high buildings.

Government

The British Parliament repeals the Townshend Acts, but retains the duty on tea. The Quartering Act is not renewed.

War

Revolutionary War: The “Boston Massacre” occurs.

Medicine

John Warren and several other Harvard students form a society for the secret dissection of animals; this society later becomes the Massachusetts Medical Society.

Inventions

African American Inventors: Benjamin Bannecker (1731-1806) builds a wooden clock that keeps accurate time for more than 50 years.

Education

Higher Education: The College of Charleston is established in South Carolina as the first municipal college.

Education

Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) publishes a mathematics textbook, "Introduction to Algebra."

Arts and Letters

Painting: Thomas Gainsborough (1727-1788) paints “The Blue Boy.”

Ideas

Edmund Burke (1729-1797) writes "Thoughts on the Causes of the Present Discontent."

Adams, Abigail

Susanna Adams (1767-1770), second daughter of Abigail and John Adams, dies at 13 months of age on February 4. It is widely reported that she was "sickly" from birth (usually a way of saying either that the cause was an unknown infection or that no one really knew what was wrong).

Adams, Abigail

A second son, Charles (1770-1800), is born to Abigail and John Adams on November 30. John Adams is asked to defend the British soldiers involved in the Boston Massacre; he does, and they are acquitted.

Economics

U.S. Population: The American colonies’ population is estimated at 2.2 million.

Economics

"The New England Psalm Singer," by William Billings (1746-1800), marks the beginning of publishing of American compositions.

Discovery

James Bruce (1730-1794) discovers the source of the Blue Nile.

Discovery

James Cook (1728-1779) discovers Botany Bay in Australia.

Science

Luigi Galvani (1737-1798) discovers the electrical nature of the nervous impulse.

Science

Joseph Priestly (1733-1804) discovers that plants convert carbon dioxide into oxygen.

Medicine

New York Hospital is founded.

Education

The Encyclopedia Britannica publishes its first edition.

Education

An edict in Spain requires the modernization of textbooks.

Ideas

The first issue of "Transactions," the journal of the American Philosophical Society, is published.

Economics

Sir Richard Arkwright (1732-1792) produces the first spinning mill in England.

Daily Life

Quaker Susanna Wright (1697-1784) acts as a legal counselor, unofficial magistrate, and physician for her neighbors in Pennsylvania.

Religion

The first separate Baptist Association was formed at a meeting in Orange County, Virginia.

Law

Slavery: An English court rules that a slave is free on landing in England.

Politics

Samuel Adams (1722-1803) forms the Committees of Correspondence in Massachusetts for action against Great Britain.

Politics

The Boston Assembly demands rights of colonies, threatens secession.

Science

Daniel Rutherford (1749-1819) and Joseph Priestly (1733-1804) discover nitrogen.

Science

Caroline Herschel (1750-1848), with her brother, William Herschel (1738-1822) assists in the first sightings of eight comets and 14 nebulae.

Science

Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) clarifies the basic principles of optics, acoustics, mechanics, and astronomy.

Inventions

John Hobday of Virginia, invents the threshing machine.

Education

The first schoolhouse west of the Allegheny Mountains is built in Schoenbrunn, Ohio, by Moravian missionaries.

Education

Higher Education: Education of Women: Women’s Colleges: Salem Academy is founded in North Carolina and is chartered as a college in 1866.

Arts and Letters

Painting: Charles Wilson Peale (1741-1827) completes a life-sized portrait of George Washington.

Adams, Abigail

A third son, Thomas Boylston (1772-1832), is born to Abigail and John Adams on September 15.

Jefferson, Martha

Martha Wayles Skelton (1748-1782) marries Thomas Jefferson on New Year's Day, when she is 23.

Jefferson, Martha

Martha "Patsy" Washington Jefferson Randolph (1772-1836), daughter of Thomas and Martha Jefferson, is born September 27.

Discovery

James Bruce (1730-1794) traces the Blue Nile to its confluence with the White Nile.

Discovery

James Cook (1728-1779) leaves England on his second voyage; this time he approaches the Antarctic Circle.

Sports

The first military ski competitions are held in Norway.

Religion

The Inquisition is abolished in France.

Politics

The Virginia House of Burgesses appoints a Provincial Committee of Correspondence.

Politics

The Boston Tea Party takes place, dumping 340 chests of tea into Boston harbor in a protest against the duty on tea.

Government

Presidents: William Henry Harrison (1773-1841), 9th Presdident of the United States, is born on February 9 in Berkeley, Virginia.

Medicine

Mental Health Movement: An early mental hospital, the Public Hospital for Persons of Insane and Disordered Minds, opens in Williamsburg, VA.

Education

Museums: The Charleston (VA) Library Society opens the first American museum of natural history.

Arts and Letters

Drama: Oliver Goldsmith (1728-1774) writes the play, "She Stoops to Conquer."

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Women''s Firsts: Women''s Firsts: Black poet Phillis Wheatley (c.1753-1784) publishes "Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral," the first published works by an African American poet.

Arts and Letters

Dance: A dance class begun in Moscow later becomes the Bolshoi Ballet Company.

Washington, Martha

Martha "Patsy" Parke Custis (1754-1773), second daughter of Martha Washington and John Parke Custis, and stepdaughter of George Washington, dies suddenly of epilepsy on June 19.

Adams, Abigail

Abigail Adams (1744-1818) establishes a friendship with Mercy Warren (1728-1814), sister of James Otis (1725-1783).

Economics

Transportation: Oliver Evans (1755-1819) proposes steam-powered “horseless carriage.”

Discovery

James Cook (1728-1779), captains the first ship to cross the Antarctic Circle.

Daily Life

Dancing: The waltz becomes fashionable in Vienna.

Daily Life

310 street lamps are installed and kept lighted in Boston from October to May.

Religion

Pope Clement XIV (1705-1774) dissolves the Jesuit Order.

Religion

The first annual conference of American Methodists meets in Philadelphia.

Politics

The Virginia House of Burgesses calls a Continental Congress to meet at Philadelphia.

Government

General Thomas Gage (1721-1787) arrives from England to be Royal Governor of Massachusetts.

Government

Parliament passes the Coercive Acts (Intolerable Acts); the port of Boston is closed.

War

Revolutionary War: George Washington (1732-1799) orders a military campaign against the Iroquois.

Science

Johann G. Gahn (1745-1818) isolates manganese.

Science

Karl W. Scheele (1742-1786) discovers chorine and barium.

Medicine

Austrian physician Franz Mesmer (1734-1815) uses hypnosis for health purposes.

Medicine

Native Americans: Benjamin Rush (1745-1813) describes Indian medical practices.

Inventions

Scotsman James Watt (1736-1819) builds first "modern" stationary steam engine

Education

Swiss educator Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827) founds a school for orphaned and neglected children in Zurich (Switzerland).

Education

Education of Women: Leonhard Usteri founds the first school for girls in Zurich, Switzerland.

Ideas

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) writes his first important work, "A Summary View of the Rights of British America."

Washington, Martha

Jacky Custis (1755-1781) leaves King's College to marry Eleanor Calvert of Maryland and settle at Abingdon, his estate up the river from Mount Vernon.

George Washington attends the First Continental Congress, meeting in Philadelphia, as a delegate from the Virginia colony.

Adams, Abigail

John Adams (1735-1826) goes to the first Continental Congress.

Jefferson, Martha

Jane Randolph Jefferson (1774-1775), daughter of Thomas and Martha Jefferson, is born on April 3.

Economics

English silversmith Hester Bateman (c. 1709-1794) registers her hallmark in London’s guildhall.

Daily Life

Magazines: The Royal American Magazine is the first to use illustrations regularly, some engravings contributed by Paul Revere (1735-1818).

Sports

Cricket: The rules for cricket are first drawn up.

Religion

The Quebec Act, to secure Canada’s loyalty to Great Britain, establishes Roman Catholicism in Canada.

Religion

Anne Lee (1736-1784) of Massachusetts settles in New York to begin a spiritualist revival (the Shakers).

Government

Native Americans: The Continental Congress establishes a Committee on Indian Affairs, appointing commissioners to create peace treaties with the Indians.

War

Revolutionary War: England hires 29,000 German mercenaries for war in North America.

War

Revolutionary War: Fort Ticonderoga is captured from the British.

War

Revolutionary War: The American Revolution begins on April 19, with the battles at Lexington and Concord; the Battle of Bunker Hill follows shortly.

War

Revolutionary War: George Washington becomes Commander-in-Chief, a navy is authorized.

Science

Joseph Priestley (1733-1804) discovers hydrochloric and sulfuric acids.

Medicine

Digitalis is used for the first time as a diuretic in dropsy (water retention in the body).

Medicine

Epidemics: A world-wide epidemic of influenza occurs.

Inventions

James Watt (1736-1819) perfects his invention of the steam engine.

Inventions

David Bushnell (1742-1824) invents a one-man, hand-operated submarine, the “American Turtle.”

Ideas

Edmund Burke (1729-1797) writes his “Speech on Conciliation with America.”

Ideas

Patrick Henry (1736-1799) gives his famous “Give me liberty or give me death” speech.

Washington, Martha

George Washington (1732-1799) attends the Second Continental Congress, where he accepts command of the Continental Army. In December, Martha (1731-1802) joins him at his headquarters in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Jefferson, Martha

Jane Randolph Jefferson (1774-1775), second daughter of Thomas and Martha Jefferson, dies at seventeen months in September.

Madison, Dolley

Dolley Payne (1768-1849) attends school with her brothers at the Cedar Creek Friends meetinghouse in Virginia.

Adams, Louisa

Louisa Catherine Johnson (1775-1852), future wife of President John Quincy Adams (1767-1848), is born in London on February 12. She is the first First Lady to be born outside of the United States.

Harrison, Anna

Anna Tuthill Symmes (1775-1864), future wife of President William Henry Harrison ((1773–1841) is born in Flatbrook, New Jersey on July 25.

Economics

American Money: American colonists issue paper currency for the Continental Congress to finance the Revolutionary War.

Economics

The colonies supply nearly 15% of the world’s iron.

Discovery

James Cook (1728-1779) returns from his second voyage.

Daily Life

The song “Yankee Doodle” becomes popular as a rallying song to taunt the British.

Daily Life

Women’s Firsts: Mary Katherine Goddard (1738-1816) became the first woman postmaster in the country (in Baltimore).

Sports

Native Americans: Indians in Florida are described as playing lacrosse, using a deerskin ball and deerskin nets on sticks.

Popular Culture

Sarah Siddons (1755-1831) appears for the first time at the Drury Lane Theatre in London.

Popular Culture

American Theatre: Colonial government regulations curb sport and entertainment during the Revolution; theatres close.

Social Issues

Slavery: Thomas Paine (1737-1806) writes "African Slavery in America."

Reform

Abolition Movement: The first abolition society in the U.S. is organized in Philadelphia by Anthony Benezet (1713-1784); Benjamin Franklin becomes its president in 1787.

Reform

Women''s Rights Movement: American political philosopher Thomas Paine (1737-1806) proposes women’s rights in an article in the Pennsylvania Magazine.

Government

The Declaration of Independence, drafted by The Continental Congress, is signed on July 4.

Government

The Second Continental Congress names the new nation the United States of America.

War

Revolutionary War: The British army occupies New York City.

War

Revolutionary War: George Washington (1732-1799) crosses the Delaware River, defeating the Hessian troops at Trenton, NJ.

Education

Higher Education: Phi Beta Kappa is founded at the College of William and Mary.

Arts and Letters

Edward Gibbon (1737-1794) writes "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire."

Ideas

Adam Smith (1723-1790) writes "An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations."

Ideas

Thomas Paine’s (1737-1806) "Common Sense" is published.

Washington, Martha

Again, Martha Washington joins her husband at his headquarters in New York. She lends her name to a formal effort to recruit more women to volunteer on behalf of the Continental Army, especially to sew uniforms and knit warm clothes for the troops.

Adams, Abigail

(1744-1818) writes a letter to John in which she tells him to “remember the ladies” when writing the Declaration of Independence.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: English tram road is laid down with cast iron angle bars on timber ties.

Discovery

James Cook’s (1728-1779) third voyage to the Pacific begins.

Discovery

Franciscan friars Dominguez and Escalante (1769–1779) explore route from New Mexico to California.

Daily Life

Disasters: Fire destroys most of the old parts of New York City.

Religion

San Francisco is established by Spanish missionaries.

Social Issues

Native Americans: Cherokee leader Nancy (or Nanye’hi) Ward (c. 1738-1824) heads the Woman’s Council and sits as a member of the Council of Chiefs.

Reform

Women's Suffrage Movement: New Jersey grants women the right to vote (revoked in 1807).

Government

The Continental Congress adopts the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union.

Government

American Flag: On June 14, 1777, the Continental Congress passes the first Flag Act which states: "That the flag of the United States be made of thirteen stripes, alternate red and white; that the union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing a new Constellation."

War

Revolutionary War: The Marquis de Lafayette’s (1757-1834) French volunteers arrive in America.

War

Revolutionary War: British General John Burgoyne (1722-1792) is defeated and surrenders to the Americans at Saratoga, NY.

Science

Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier (1743-1794) proves that air consists mainly of oxygen and nitrogen, and coins the term oxygen.

Medicine

George Washington (1732-1799) orders his soldiers to be inoculated against smallpox.

Arts and Letters

Drama: Playwright Richard Brinsley Sheridan (1751-1816) writes the comedy "The School for Scandal."

Washington, Martha

Martha spends some time in her husband’s camp in Morristown, Pennsylvania.

Jefferson, Martha

The only Jefferson son was born May 28 and died a short while later on June 14. Over the course of time, this child's name has been lost.

Economics

Women''s Firsts: Baltimore postmaster Mary Katherine Goddard (1738-1816) is the first person to print the Declaration of Independence.

Daily Life

Women’s Firsts: Mary Katherine Goddard (1738-1816) became the first printer to offer copies of the Declaration of Independence that included the signers' names.

Religion

The New Testament of the Bible is published in English for the first time in America.

Religion

The chapel of the San Juan Capistrano mission, the oldest building still in existence in California, is built.

Social Issues

Slavery: Vermont abolishes slavery, becoming the first colony to do so.

Social Issues

Civil Rights Movement: New York enfranchises all free propertied men regardless of color or prior servitude.

Government

Congress ratifies a treaty with France and rejects a British peace offer.

Government

Slavery: An Act of Congress prohibits the import of slaves into the U.S.

War

Revolutionary War: British Tories and Indians massacre inhabitants of Wyoming Valley, PA and Cherry Valley, NY.

War

Revolutionary War: Mary McCauley (1754-1832) (Molly Pitcher), carries water to American soldiers during the Battle of Monmouth; she then mans her husband’s cannon when he is killed.

Medicine

William Brown (1748-1792), Virginia physician, publishes "Pharmacopoeia," a guide to medicines and drugs.

Inventions

Joseph Bramah (1748-1814) from Yorkshire constructs an improved water closet (toilet).

Education

Phillips Andover Academy is founded in Massachusetts, with a broader curriculum than the Latin Grammar School.

Washington, Martha

During the bitter winter at Valley Forge, Martha Washington endeared herself to the soldiers as she brought food and warm clothing to the freezing men and worked hard to get local women to do the same.

Adams, Abigail

A sixth child is stillborn to Abigail (1744-1818) and John Adams (1735-1826).

Jefferson, Martha

Mary "Polly" "Maria" Jefferson (1778-1804), daughter of Thomas and Martha Jefferson, is born on August 1.

Economics

American Money: The dollar sign ($) is created by Oliver Pollack.

Discovery

James Cook (1728-1779) discovers Hawaii (then called the Sandwich Islands).

Social Issues

Native Americans: Frances Slocum (1773-1847) is captured by Delaware Indians; she is discovered in 1835 but refuses to return to her family, preferring to die where “the Great Spirit will find me.”

Social Issues

Slavery: Rhode Island forbids the removal of slaves from the state.

Social Issues

Slavery: Virginia prohibits the importation of slaves.

War

Revolutionary War: John Paul Jones (1747-1792) makes his famous statement, “I have not yet begun to fight!” aboard the American warship Bonhomme Richard.

War

Revolutionary War: The British surrender to Americans at Vincennes.

Medicine

Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729-1799) studies the role of semen in fertilization.

Education

Higher Education: Under Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), William and Mary College creates schools of medicine, law and modern languages, and pioneers in a system allowing students to choose courses.

Education

Public Education: Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) proposes a two-track educational system, with different tracks in his words for "the laboring and the learned." Scholarship would allow a very few of the laboring class to advance, Jefferson says, by "raking a few geniuses from the rubbish."

Daily Life

The first “velocipedes” (bicycles) appear in Paris.

Daily Life

Political cartooning blossoms in England with satires of King George III (1738-1820) drawn by James Gillray (1756-1815).

Sports

Horse Racing: Quarter-mile horse races become popular around Charlottesville, VA.

Sports

Horse Racing: The Derby is established at Epsom racetrack in England.

Religion

John Murray (1741-1815) establishes the First Universalist congregation at Gloucester, Massachusetts.

Religion

The Great Awakening: Olney Hymns are published; it includes the original form of “Amazing Grace,” written by John Newton (1725-1807), a converted slave trader.

Government

The capital of Virginia is moved to Richmond.

Science

The American Academy of Sciences is founded in Boston.

Medicine

The Philadelphia Humane Society is established to teach first aid (reviving drowning victims). Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) proposes mouth-to-mouth resuscitation.

Inventions

The circular saw is invented by Gervinus.

Inventions

Scheller invents the first fountain pen.

Technology

Battery Technology: The modern battery development dates as far back as the late 18th century. The cause was championed by the work carried out by Luigi Galvani (1737-1798) from 1780 to 1786.

Jefferson, Martha

Lucy Elizabeth I (1780-1781), daughter of Thomas and Martha Jefferson, is born on November 3.

Economics

Population: U.S. population is estimated at 2.7 million.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The first Sunday newspapers appear in London.

Daily Life

Dancing: The bolero, a lively Spanish dance, is introduced by Sebastian Cerezo.

Sports

Cricket: The first six-seamed cricket ball is manufactured in England.

Social Issues

Slavery: Women''s Firsts: Elizabeth Freeman (1742-1829), great-grandmother of W.E.B. DuBois (1868-1963) and the first slave to be emancipated in the American colonies is given her freedom in Massachusetts.

Social Issues

Slavery: Delaware makes it illegal to enslave imported Africans.

Social Issues

Slavery: Pennsylvania begins gradual emancipation of slaves.

Government

Thomas Barclay (1728-1793) is appointed as the first diplomat of the Continental Government, representing the new nation in France.

War

Revolutionary War: The American Revolution ends when British General Charles Cornwallis (1738-1805) surrenders to General George Washington (1732-1799) at Yorktown, Virginia.

Science

Astronomer William Herschel (1738-1822) discovers the planet Uranus.

Education

Johann Pestalozzi (1747-1827) writes his educational aims in the novel, "Leonard and Gertrude."

Jefferson, Martha

Lucy Elizabeth I (1780-1781), fourth daughter of Thomas and Martha Jefferson, dies 5 months after birth on April 15, perhaps as a result of exposure to wintry cold as she fled with her family from the British.

Washington, Martha

John "Jacky" Parke Custis (1754-1781), second son of Martha Washington and stepson of George Washington, dies of dysentery while serving under Washington during the Revolutionary War. The Washingtons take his two younger children, George Washington Parke Custis and Eleanor (Nelly) Custis, to raise.

Economics

Blue laws get their name in New Haven, CT, when a town ordinance printed on blue paper prohibits work on Sunday.

Economics

Construction begins on the Siberian highway.

Economics

The Bank of North America is chartered.

Economics

American Money: Also to support the Revolutionary War, the continental Congress charters the Bank of North America in Philadelphia as the nation's first "real" bank.

Religion

Franciscan monks settle at Los Angeles.

Government

The Great Seal of the United States is adopted.

Government

Presidents: Martin Van Buren (1782-1862), 8th President of the United States, is born on December 5 in Kinderhook, New York.

War

Preliminary peace negotiations between England and the United States occur in Paris.

War

Congress passes a national conscription act to require “each and every free able-bodied white male citizen of the republic” to serve in the U.S. militia.

Medicine

Higher Education: Harvard Medical school opens.

Inventions

James Watt (1736-1819) invents a double-acting rotary steam engine.

Technology

Hot Air Balloons: The Montgolfier brothers, Joseph (1740-1810) and Jacques (1745-1799), build an hot air balloon.

Education

Catholic Education: The first Catholic parochial school is founded by St. Mary’s Catholic Church in Philadelphia.

Arts and Letters

The Royal Irish Academy is founded in Dublin.

Jefferson, Martha

Lucy Elizabeth II (1782-1784), daughter of Thomas and Martha Jefferson, is born on May 8.

Jefferson, Martha

Martha Wayles Skelton Jefferson (1748-1782), wife of Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), dies on September 6 at Monticello. She is the first First Lady to die before her husband was elected to office.

Economics

The Bank of North America is established in Philadelphia.

Reform

Temperance Movement: A Town Meeting in Worcester, Massachusetts opposes a state liquor tax because it is felt that liquor is necessary for the morale of farm workers.

War

Revolutionary War: Great Britain recognizes the independence of the U.S. and the war is officially over with the signing of the Treaty of Paris.

War

Revolutionary War: George Washington (1732-1799) resigns as Commander-in-Chief and the Continental Army is disbanded.

Science

Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794) suggests that water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen.

Inventions

John Broadwood (1732-1812) patents his piano pedals.

Inventions

D. Domenico Salsano invents the seismograph for measuring the strength of earthquakes.

Education

Higher Education: Enrollment at Yale College is 270.

Education

Education of Women: Choderlos de Laclos (1741-1803) publishes "De l’éducation des femmes" (On the Education of Women).

Education

Noah Webster (1758-1843) publishes "The American Spelling Book," called the “Blue-Backed Speller,” which helps standardize spelling of American English.

Arts and Letters

The first works of Ludwig van Beethoven’s (1770-1827) are published.

Washington, Martha

As the Revolutionary War ends, Martha (1731-1892) and George Washington (1732-1799) return to Mount Vernon.

Madison, Dolley

Dolley Madison’s (1764-1849) father, John Payne, influenced by his Quaker tenets and desiring a better education for his children, frees his slaves, sells his plantation, and moves his family to Philadelphia.

Van Buren, Hannah

Hannah Hoes (1783-1819), future wife of President Martin Van Buren ((1782–1862), is born on March 8th in Kinderhook, New York. She is the first First Lady to be born an American citizen; all First Ladies before her were British subjects. She is also the second of ten First Ladies born in New York, the "mother state" of presidential wives.

Economics

Population: Population of the U.S. is estimated at 2.4 million.

Daily Life

Newspapers: At the war's end, there are forty-three newspapers in print. The press plays a vital role in the affairs of the new nation; many more newspapers are started, representing all shades of political opinion.

Daily Life

Society of the Cincinnati, an elite American Revolutionary group, is established.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The first daily newspaper in the U.S., "The Pennsylvania Evening Post," begins publication.

Daily Life

Transportation: It takes Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) five days to travel from Philadelphia to Baltimore, about 90 miles.

Popular Culture

Hot Air Balloons: The first recorded manned flight in a hot air balloon takes place in Paris; the Montgolfier brothers pilot their paper and silk balloon for 22 minutes.

Social Issues

Slavery: Affluent free blacks in New Orleans, Louisiana, organize the Perseverance, Benevolence and Mutual Aid Association to support their own interests and assist the poor.

Social Issues

Slavery: Virginia emancipates those slaves who served in the colonial forces against Britain, provided that the slave's master gives permission.

Government

Slavery: Congress narrowly defeats Thomas Jefferson’s (1743-1826) proposal to ban slavery in new territories after 1800.

Government

Presidents: Zachary Taylor (1784-1950), 12th President of the U.S., is born November 24, near Barboursville, Virginia.

Government

North Carolina cedes its western lands to the U.S. The state of Franklin (present-day east Tennessee) exists until 1888, when settlers accept renewed jurisdiction of North Carolina.

War

Revolutionary War: The U.S. ratifies the treaty with England ending the Revolutionary War.

Medicine

Johann von Goethe (1749-1837) discovers the human intermaxillary bone.

Inventions

Swiss inventor Aimé Argand (1755-1803) designs an oil burner.

Inventions

Joseph Bramah (1748-1814), English engineer, invents a pick-proof lock.

Education

Special Education: The first school for the blind is established in Paris.

Education

Higher Education: King’s College in New York City becomes Columbia University.

Ideas

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) publishes "Notes on Virginia."

Adams, Abigail

Abigail Adams (1744-1818) joins husband, John (1735-1826), in Paris, where he is an ambassador.

Jefferson, Martha

Lucy Elizabeth II (1782-1784), daughter of Thomas and Martha Jefferson, dies October 13 from the "complicated evils of teething, worms and hooping cough."

Economics

The "Empress of China" sails from Salem, Massachusetts to Canton, China, establishing a route for the New England-China trade.

Daily Life

The first political cartoons by Thomas Rowlandson (1756-1827) are published.

Daily Life

Magazines: "Gentlemen and Ladies’ Town and Country Magazine" begins publication as does "The American Mercury."

Sports

Deer hunting at night in the Carolinas is made a misdemeanor because of the accidental slaughter of many cows and horses.

Popular Culture

Hot Air Balloons: Vincent Lunardi (1759-1806) first ascends in a hot air balloon in England.

Popular Culture

Hot Air Balloons: Elisabeth Thible becomes the first woman to go aloft as a passenger in a hot air balloon over Lyons, France.

Religion

The first American bishop for the colonies is appointed.

Religion

The Great Awakening: John Wesley (1702-1791) publishes his Deed of Declaration, and Weslayan Methodism is chartered.

Religion

Women''s Firsts: Hannah Adams (1755-1832), the first American woman to support herself as a writer, publishes "An Alphabetical Compendium of the Various Sects."

Government

Congress passes the Land Ordinance of 1785 (Northwest Ordinance).

Government

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) becomes Minister to France and John Adams (1735-1826) becomes Minister to Great Britain.

Inventions

Chlorine bleach is invented.

Inventions

The steam-powered loom is invented.

Education

The London Society for the Establishment of Sunday Schools is founded.

Education

Public Education: The Northwest Ordinance stimulates the establishment of public schools through land grants by stipulating that certain amounts of land must be set aside for public education purposes.

Ideas

Hot Air Balloons: Philip Freneau (1752-1832) suggests that hot air balloons could be used to travel to other planets.

Adams, Abigail

Abigail Adams (1744-1818) continues as a diplomatic wife in London when John (1735-1826) is appointed the first U.S. minister to Great Britain.

Economics

American Money: The dollar becomes the official currency of the United States.

Economics

Ann Timothy holds the post Printer to the State of South Carolina.

Economics

Transportation: Regular stagecoach routes linking New York City, Boston, and Philadelphia begin operations.

Popular Culture

Hot Air Balloons: The first hot air balloon flight across the English Channel takes place.

Social Issues

Slavery: New York passes a gradual emancipation law, prohibits the importation of slaves, and allows masters to manumit slaves without posting bonds.

Social Issues

Slavery: Virginia deems any person with black blood to be a mulatto and declares that the use of the term Negro is understood to include mulattos.

Science

German chemist M. H. Klaproth (1743-1817) discovers uranium.

Medicine

Benjamin Rush (1745-1813) suggests that some illnesses may be psychosomatic.

Medicine

Pennsylvania Hospital opens an outpatient dispensary, a forerunner of free clinics.

Inventions

American inventor James Rumsey (c.1743-1792), designs the first mechanically driven boat.

Education

Education of Women: A government boarding school for girls is founded in Vienna for the education of teachers and governesses.

Education

Museums: The Philadelphia Museum is founded by Charles Wilson Peale (1741-1827).

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Robert Burns (1759-1796) publishes "Poems, chiefly in the Scottish dialect."

Arts and Letters

Opera: Mozart’s (1756-1791) "The Marriage of Figaro" is produced in Vienna.

Monroe, Elizabeth

Elizabeth Kortright (1768-1830) marries James Monroe (1738-1851) in February when she is seventeen.

Monroe, Elizabeth

Eliza Kortright Monroe (1786-1835), daughter of President James Monroe and Elizabeth Monroe, is born.

Economics

Debt-ridden farmers in western Massachusetts, led by Daniel Shays (c.1745-1825), revolt against the state government, protesting high taxes, shortage of money, and insistent creditors. Shays’ Rebellion is crushed in 1787.

Economics

The first ice cream is made commercially in New York City.

Sports

Golf: The Charleston, NC Golf Club is established.

Sports

Mt. Blanc in the Alps is climbed for the first time.

Religion

A collection of sacred music for schools is the first book in the U.S. published with moveable type.

Religion

The Religious Freedom Act abolishes religious tests for voting in Virginia.

Social Issues

Native Americans: The U.S. establishes first Native American reservation and policy of dealing with each tribe as an independent nation.

Politics

A constitutional convention meets in Philadelphia to frame a Constitution; the Constitution of the U.S. is signed.

Government

Congress enacts the Northwest Ordinance of 1787.

Government

New State: Delaware ratifies the Constitution and becomes the 1st state in the Union; Pennsylvania is 2nd state in the Union; New Jersey becomes the 3rd.

Government

National Capital: The new Constitution provides the the creation of a separate national capital, and the search for a site begins.

Inventions

American inventor John Fitch (1743-1798) launches a steamboat on the Delaware River.

Education

Higher Education: The College of Physicians of Philadelphia opens.

Education

Children''s Books: The first American edition of "Mother Goose Rhymes" is published by Isaiah Thomas (1749-1831

Arts and Letters

Mozart (1756-1791) composes "Don Giovanni;" it premieres in Prague.

Ideas

John Adams (1735-1826) writes "A Defense of the Constitution of Government of the U.S.A."

Ideas

James Madison (1751-1836) writes "The Vices of the Political System of the United States."

Washington, Martha

George Washington (1732-1799) attends a concert given by Alexander Reinagle (c.1750-1809), finest pianist in the U.S. at the time; he later engages Reinagle to give music lessons to his daughter.

Economics

The first American cotton mill opens in Beverly, Massachusetts.

Daily Life

One of the first non-religious song books, A Select Collection of the Most Favorite Scots Tunes, is published in the U.S. by Alexander Rienagle.

Religion

Lucy Wright (1760-1821), successor to Ann Lee, dominates the period of the Shaker society’s greatest growth.

Religion

Black preacher Richard Allen (1760-1831) founds the African Methodist Episcopal Church in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

Reform

Abolition Movement: The Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade is formed by British Quakers.

Government

New State: Georgia ratifies the new Constitution and becomes the 4th state admitted to the Union; Connecticut becomes the 5th; Massachusetts is the 6th; Maryland is the 7th; South Carolina is the 8th; New Hampshire is the 9th; Virginia is the 10th; New York is the 11th.

Government

National Capital: New York City becomes the federal capital of the U.S.

Government

National Capital: Maryland and Virginia give land for a new federal capital.

Science

The Marquis Pierre Simon de Laplace (1749-1827) writes "Laws of the Planetary System."

Medicine

Mobs riot in New York and Boston protesting the use of cadavers for dissection in medical schools.

Inventions

Andrew Meikle (1719-1811), Scottish millwright, patents a thrasher for removing husks from grain.

Education

Hannah More (1745-1833) opens a school for illiterates in England and receives much opposition for educating laborers.

Education

Public Education: The Constitution gives the power to establish schools and license teachers to individual states rather than to the federal government.

Ideas

"The Federalist Papers" are published.

Ideas

Emmanuel Kant (1724-1804) writes "A Critique of Pure Reason."

Adams, Abigail

Abigail (1744-1818) and John Adams (1735-1826) return to Braintree, MA from abroad.

Taylor, Margaret

Margaret “Peggy” Mackall Smith (1788-1852), future wife of President Zachary Taylor (1784–1850), is born in Calvert County, MD on September 21.

Economics

"Northwest America," the first American ship built on the west coast, is launched.

Daily Life

Crime and Punishment: Botany Bay in Australia becomes an English penal colony.

Daily Life

The first hortensia and fuchsia are imported to Europe from Peru.

Daily Life

Disasters: Fire destroys more than 800 buildings in New Orleans.

Social Issues

Slavery: New York passes a new comprehensive slave law, confirming that all current slaves are slaves for life.

Social Issues

Slavery: Connecticut and Massachusetts forbid residents from participating in the slave trade.

Law

The Federal Judiciary Act creates the Supreme Court.

Law

Chief Justices: President George Washington (1732-1799) nominates John Jay (1745-1829) as the first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court on September 24th. The Senate confirms the appointment on September 26th. After serving as Chief Justice for five years, Jay resigns from the Supreme Court on June 29, 1795. He is elected Governor of New York in 1796.

Law

The Constitution of the United States goes into effect; the first ten amendments to the Constitution are introduced by the Congress.

Politics

George Washington (1732-1799) is elected President of the U.S., and John Adams (1735-1826)is elected Vice President.

Politics

First Political Parties: The Federalist Party is formed.

Politics

Tammany (Hall) is founded in New York City.

Politics

Political buttons first appear.

Government

New State: North Carolina ratifies the Constitution and becomes the 12th state admitted to the Union.

War

French Revolution: The French Revolution begins.

Medicine

Edward Holyoke (1728-1829), physician, publishes life expectancy table showing the Americans live longer than Europeans.

Inventions

Englishman William Jessup designs first wagons with flanged wheels.

Education

The first modern chemistry textbook, "Elements of Chemistry," is published by Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794); all illustrations are provided by his wife, Marie.

Education

One of the earliest complaints about a textbook is made by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison against a geography book written by Jedidiah Morse, who object to the popular text’s characterization of the young men of Virginia, as “gamblers, cockfighters, and horse-jockies”.

Education

Higher Education: Georgetown University is established in what is now Washington, D.C.

Ideas

Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832), English barrister, publishes "An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation."

Washington, Martha

Martha Washington (1731-1802) becomes the nation’s first First Lady. She does not attend her husband''''s presidential inauguration, but joins him several weeks later in New York City, the nation''s first capital.

Adams, Abigail

John Adams (1735-1826) becomes Vice President; serves two terms under George Washington.

Madison, Dolley

Dolley Paine’s (1764-1849) father loses his business in Philadelphia and is expelled from the Pine Street Monthly Meeting for failure to pay his debts.

Economics

Christopher Colles (c.1738-1821) publishes the first American road map.

Economics

Women''s Firsts: Mary Katherine Goddard (1738-1816) opens a Baltimore bookstore, probably the first woman in America to do so.

Daily Life

Chrysanthemums are introduced to Britain from the Orient.

Daily Life

Holidays: Thanksgiving Day is celebrated as a national holiday for the first time.

Daily Life

Magazines: The first periodical designed for children, "The Children’s Magazine," is published in Hartford, CT.

Reform

Abolition Movement: The Maryland Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery and the Relief of Free Negroes and Others Unlawfully Held in Bondage is founded.

Reform

Temperance Movement: The first organized temperance group is formed by 200 farmers in Connecticut, who pledge not to drink alcoholic beverages during farming season.

Law

The first session of the Supreme Court takes place.

Government

The Copyright Act is passed with the help of Noah Webster.

Government

Congress gives George Washington (1732-1799) the power to choose the site for the new capitol.

Government

U.S. President George Washington (1732-1799) delivers the first State of the Union address.

Government

New State: Rhode Island becomes the 13th state to ratify the Constitution and join the United States.

Government

Presidents: John Tyler (1790-1862), 10th President of the U.S., is born in Greenway, Virginia.

Medicine

Samuel Hahnemann (1755-1843) rages against the prevalent practice of bloodletting as a universal cure and founds homeopathy.

Inventions

A foot-powered dental drill is invented by John Greenwood (1760-1819).

Education

Education of Women: Catherine Macaulay’s (1731-1791) "Letters on Education" influences Mary Wollstonecraft’s thinking in "A Vindication of the Rights of Women" (1792).

Education

Public Education: Pennsylvania state constitution calls for free public education but only for poor children. It is expected that rich people will pay for their children's schooling.

Washington, Martha

The Washingtons move to Philadelphia when the capital does.

Madison, Dolley

Dolley Payne (1764-1849) marries John Todd, Jr., a Quaker lawyer, on January 7.

Tyler, Letitia

Letitia Christian (1790-1842), first wife of President John Tyler (1790–1862), is born on her family''''s plantation, Cedar Grove, in Virginia on November 12.

Economics

The first American steam-powered cotton-processing machines are built, marking the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the U.S.

Economics

Population: The first national census shows the American population at 4 million—about 25% in New England, 25% in the Middle States, and 50% in the South.

Religion

The first Roman Catholic bishop consecrated in America is John Carroll (1735-1815) of Baltimore.

Religion

Women’s Firsts: Mother Bernardina Matthews (1732-1800) establishes a Carmelite convent near Port Tobacco, Maryland, and the first community of Roman Catholic nuns in the Thirteen Colonies.

Religion

The first Roman Catholic Bible is published in the U.S. by Mathew Carey.

Social Issues

Slavery: The First United States Census reveals that nearly 700,000 slaves live and toil in a nation of 3.9 million people.

Social Issues

Slavery: Congress denies naturalization to anyone who is not a free white.

Social Issues

Slavery: Congress advocates the expansion of slavery into the Southwest.

Social Issues

Immigration: The federal government requires two years of residency for naturalization.

Reform

Women''s Rights Movement: French philosopher Condorcet (1743-1794) writes "On the Admission of Women to Citizens’ Rights."

Government

The first ten amendments of the U.S. Constitution (Bill of Rights) are ratified and become known as the Bill of Rights.

Government

Congress passes the first internal revenue law, a tax of 20 to 30 cents on a gallon of distilled spirits.

Government

New State: Vermont becomes the 14th state in the U.S., ending 14 years as a republic.

Government

National Capital: The design of Washington, DC is developed by Pierre-Charles L’Enfant (1754-1825); President Washington (1732-1799) chooses a site along the Potomic River for the federal district; Congress names it the Territory of Columbia and the capital the City of Washington.

Government

Presidents: James Buchanan (1791-1868), 15th President of the U.S., is born April 23 in Cove Gap (near Mercersburg), Pennsylvania.

Science

M.H. Klaproth (1743-1817) names the element titanium.

Education

Higher Education: The Philadelphia Academy becomes the University of Pennsylvania.

Arts and Letters

Opera: The first performance of Mozart’s (1756-1791) "Magic Flute" takes place in Vienna.

Arts and Letters

The first opera house in the U.S. opens in New Orleans.

Ideas

Thomas Paine (1737-1806) writes "The Rights of Man, Part I" in defense of the French Revolution.

Madison, Dolley

Dolley Payne Todd’s father, John Payne, dies; her mother opens a boarding house in Philadelphia.

Jackson, Rachel

Rachel Donelson Robards (1767-1828) marries Andrew Jackson )1767-1845) in New Orleans.

Economics

The first successful sugar refinery is opened in New Orleans.

Economics

American Money: After adoption of the Constitution in 1789, Congress charters the First Bank of the United States until 1811 and authorizes it to issue paper bank notes to eliminate confusion and simplify trade.

Daily Life

Dancing: The waltz becomes fashionable in England.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The ratification of the Bill of Rights at last guarantees the freedom of the press, and America's newspapers begin to take on a central role in national affairs.

Reform

Women''s Rights Movement: The first French feminist magazine, Etrennes nationales des dames is founded on the principle that “women are equal to men in rights and in pleasure.”

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: Etta Palm d’Aelders (1743-1799) speaks before the French National Assembly, promoting equal education for girls and equal rights for women.

Politics

First Political Parties: The Democratic-Republican Party is formed under Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826).

Politics

George Washington (1732-1799) and John Adams (1735-1826) are re-elected President and Vice President of the U.S.

Government

A U.S. mint is established in Philadelphia.

Government

New State: Kentucky becomes the 15th state in the U.S.

Government

National Capital: The cornerstone of the White House is laid.

War

Congress passes a national conscription act to require “each and every free able-bodied white male citizen of the republic” to serve in the U.S. militia.

War

Slavery: Congress excludes blacks from military service.

Arts and Letters

Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) begins studying with Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809) in Vienna.

Arts and Letters

Architecture: Irish-American architect James Hoban (1762-1831) begins to build the White House in Washington, DC.

Arts and Letters

Women’s Firsts: Dance: Suzanne Vaillande (1778-1826) appears in "The Bird Catcher," in New York, the first ballet presented in the U.S. She was also probably the first woman to work as a choreographer and set designer in the United States.

Ideas

Thomas Paine (1737-1806) writes "The Rights of Man, Part II."

Ideas

Education of Women: Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) writes "A Vindication of the Rights of Women."

Madison, Dolley

Dolley and John Todd, Jr. have a son, John Payne Todd (1792-1852) on February 29. He was later adopted by James Madison after Dolley and Madison were married.

Economics

Twenty-four merchants meet on what is now Wall Street, signing the Buttonwood Agreement, creating the New York Stock Exchange.

Economics

American Money: The federal monetary system is established with the creation of the U.S. Mint in Philadelphia, and dollar coins are minted for the first time in the U.S.

Discovery

The Columbia River is discovered by Captain Robert Gray (1755-1806).

Popular Culture

The French national anthem, "La Marseillaise," is composed by Claude-Joseph Rouget de Lisle (1760-1836).

Religion

The Baptist Missionary Society is founded in London.

Reform

Women''s Rights Movement: Judith Sargent Murray (1751-1820) begins a series of essays titled "The Gleaner.”

Government

George Washington (1732-1799) and John Adams (1735-1826) are inaugurated as President and Vice President of the U.S.

Government

Slavery: The Fugitive Slave Act compels escaped slaves to be returned to their masters.

Government

National Capital: The cornerstone of the Capital Building is laid by President Washington (1732-1799).

War

French Revolution: The Reign of Terror begins.

Science

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) links fossils with similar living organisms.

Medicine

Epidemics: Yellow fever kills 5,000 people in Philadelphia.

Inventions

Eli Whitney (1765-1825) invents the cotton gin.

Inventions

French engineer Claude Chappe (1763-1805) invents the mechanical semaphore.

Inventions

Women's Firsts: Mrs. Samuel Slater obtains the first patent given to a woman in the U.S. for a method of producing cotton thread.

Education

African American Education: Katy Ferguson (c.1774-1854), an ex-slave, founds her school for the poor in New York City; students include 28 Black children and 20 white children.

Education

Higher Education: African American Education: Lucy Terry Prince (1724-1821) defends her son’s admission to Williams College, eloquently presenting African-American people’s desire for an education.

Arts and Letters

The Louvre in Paris becomes a national art gallery.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: William Wordsworth (1770-1850) publishes his first poems.

Madison, Dolley

A second son, William Temple Todd (1793-1793), is born to Dolley and John Todd, Jr. Several months later, an epidemic of yellow fever takes the life of this baby, as well as that of his father and his paternal grandparents.

Economics

American Money: The first American coins are struck.

Daily Life

The first public zoo opens in Paris.

Daily Life

France becomes the first country to use the metric system.

Popular Culture

Hot Air Balloons: French aeronaut Jean-Pierre Blanchard (1753-1809) makes the first hot air balloon flight over the North American continent.

Religion

Roman Catholicism is banned in France.

Law

The Eleventh Amendment to the Constitution, limiting the power of the federal courts, is passed by Congress.

Government

American Flag: The Act of January 13, 1794 states that15 stripes and 15 stars will be added to the flag after May 1795.

War

The U.S. Navy is established.

Science

Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802), English physician, suggests the theory of evolution 50 years before his grandson, Charles Darwin (1809-1882) writes his own theory.

Inventions

The cotton gin is patented by Eli Whitney (1765-1825).

Technology

The first "telegraph"--a visual semaphore system--is developed by Claude Chappe (1763-1805) and established between Paris and Lille in France.

Education

Teacher Education: The Ecole Normale is founded in Paris to educate teachers.

Education

Higher Education: The world’s first technical college, the Ecole Polytechnique, opens in Paris.

Education

"Elements of Geometry," by French mathematician Adrien-Marie Legendre (1752-1833) becomes the standard geometry text in Europe and North America.

Ideas

Thomas Paine (1737-1806) writes "The Age of Reason."

Madison, Dolley

Dolley Payne Todd (1764-1849) is introduced to James Madison (1751-1836) by Aaron Burr (1756-1836) Madison and Dolley Todd are married on September 15 at her sister's estate in what is now West Virginia. Mrs. Madison is disavowed by the Quakers.

Jackson, Rachel

Rachel (1767-1828) and Andrew Jackson (1767-1845) marry a second time in Nashville on January 17.

Economics

The “Whiskey Rebellion”—a protest over the excise tax place on liquor--occurs in Pennsylvania.

Daily Life

Duncan Phyfe (c.1768-1854), a cabinetmaker in New York, brings the elegant Sheraton and Regency furniture styles to the U.S.

Daily Life

Postal rates are usually paid by the person receiving the mail; amount is set by length of distance the mail travels.

Daily Life

Fashion: Men no longer powder their hair.

Popular Culture

The song, "Auld Lang Syne" is published; it was written by Robert Burns (1759-1796) in 1781.

Law

Chief Justices: President George Washington (1732-1799) nominates John Rutledge (1739-1800) as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. He serves in that position as a recess appointee for four months, but the Senate refuses to confirm him.

Law

The Eleventh Amendment to the Constitution, limiting the power of the federal courts, is ratified by two-thirds of the states and added to the Constitution.

Government

The Naturalization Act establishes a five-year residence requirement for citizenship. Members of the nobility entering the U.S. must give up their titles.

Government

The Treaty of San Lorenzo between the U.S. and Spain draws the boundary with Florida and gives the U.S. the right to navigate the Mississippi River.

Government

Presidents: James Knox Polk, 11th President of the U.S., is born in Mecklanburg County, North Carolina.

Science

Martin H. Klaproth (1743-1817) names the element titanium.

Inventions

Robert Fulton (1765-1815) patents the first power-shovel for digging canals.

Technology

Francois Appert (1750-1841) designs a preserving jar for foods.

Education

Higher Education: The University of North Carolina, the first state university in the U.S., accepts its first student, Hinton James.

Education

Public Education: Connecticut sells its land in the Western territories for $1.2 million and uses the proceeds to establish a permanent school fund.

Arts and Letters

The American Academy of Fine Arts holds its first exhibition in Philadelphia.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: The first horse-drawn railroad appears in England.

Economics

The metric system is officially adopted in France.

Daily Life

Women’s Firsts: Anne Parrish establishes, in Philadelphia, the House of Industry, the first charitable organization for women in America.

Religion

Freedom of worship is declared in France.

Reform

Labor Movement: The Federal Society of Journeymen Cordwainers (shoemakers) is founded, one of the earliest unions in the U.S.

Law

Chief Justices: President George Washington (1732-1799) nominates Oliver Ellsworth (1745-1807)as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. He is immediately confirmed by the Senate as remains as Chief Justice until his resignation in 1800.

Politics

George Washington (1732-1826) refuses a third term, warns against the dangers of foreign entanglements.

Politics

John Adams (1735-1826)and Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) are elected President and Vice-President.

Government

New State: Tennessee becomes the 16th state in the U.S.

Science

Horace de Saussure (1740-1799) coins the term geology in his work Travels in the Alps.

Medicine

English physician Edward Jenner (1749-1823) introduces vaccination against smallpox.

Technology

James Finley (1768-1822) builds America’s first suspension bridge across Jacob’s Creek in Westmoreland, Pennsylvania.

Technology

Battery Technology: From 1796 - 1799, Alessandro Volta (1745 – 1827) experimented with zinc and silver plates to produce electric currents at the Pavia University. Volta stacked the two to form a "pile", the first "dry" battery.

Arts and Letters

Literature: The first complete works of William Shakespeare (1564-1616) are published in the U.S.

Harrison, Anna

Elizabeth "Betsey" Bassett Harrison Short (1796-1846), the oldest daughter of William Henry and Anna Harrison, is born September 29.

Economics

Zane’s Trace, which becomes one of the main routes traveled by migrants to the west, begins construction.

Daily Life

The elephant is brought to the United States from India.

Sports

Billiards is a popular game in the South.

Government

John Adams (1735-1826) and Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) are inaugurated as President and Vice-President of the United States.

Government

Tennessee Senator William Blount (1749-1800) becomes the first senator to be impeached.

War

The U.S.S. Constitution, “Old Ironsides,” is launched in Boston Harbor.

Medicine

The Royal Society in England rejects Edward Jenner’s (1749-1823) smallpox vaccination technique.

Technology

A washing machine is patented by Nathaniel Briggs.

Technology

America’s first iron plow is patented by Charles Newbold, amid rumors that the iron would poison the soil and increase weeds.

Technology

The vacuum bottle is designed.

Washington, Martha

Martha (1731-1802) and George (1732-1799) Washington retire to their home at Mount Vernon. Martha wrote to a friend, “The General and I feel like children just released from school.”

Madison, Dolley

James (1751-1836) and Dolley Madison (1764-1849) move from Philadelphia to their home at Montpelier, in Orange County, the Virginia piedmont.

Economics

One pound notes are issued for the first time by the Bank of England.

Sports

Hot Air Balloons: The first parachute jump from a balloon is made by Andre-Jacques Garnerin (1770-1823).

Religion

Ann Griffiths (1776-1805) joins the Methodists and begins composing hymns for them.

Religion

The Pocket Hymn Book, containing words but not music, is published; it is widely used at revival camp meetings.

Government

The Federalist majority in Congress adds nine years to the requirement for citizenship.

Government

Congress passes the Alien and Sedition Acts, permitting the arrest and deportation of any “dangerous” alien and restricting political opposition.

Government

The U.S. Public Health Service and the U.S. Marine Hospital is authorized.

Science

Louis Nicholas Vauquelin (1763-1829) discovers the element beryllium.

Medicine

Epidemics: A yellow fever epidemic kills over 2,000 people in Philadelphia.

Medicine

The English dermatologist, Robert Willan (1757 ~ 1812) recognizes psoriasis as an independent disease.

Inventions

German inventor Aloys Senefelder (1771-1834) invents lithography.

Inventions

Eli Whitney (1765-1825) invents a milling machine.

Inventions

Robert Fulton (1765-1815) invents a four-man, hand-operated submarine.

Education

Hannah More (1745-1833) is forced to close her school for working-class children on a trumped-up charge of being an unregistered meeting place for Dissenters.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" is published by Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834).

Ideas

Thomas R. Malthus (1766-1834) writes his "Essay on the Principle of Population."

Harrison, Anna

John Cleves Symmes Harrison (1798-1830), son of William Henry and Anna Harrison, is born October 28.

Fillmore, Abigail

Abigail Powers (1798-1853), future wife of President Millard Fillmore (1800–1874), is born in Stillwater, New York, on March 13. She is the fourth of ten First Ladies born in New York, the "mother state" of presidential wives.

Popular Culture

Joseph Hopkinson (1770-1842) writes the patriotic song, “Hail Columbia.”

Religion

Catholic women forced to do penance for kindling Sabbath fire for Jews.

Politics

The first U.S. printed ballots were authorized in Pannsylvania.

Government

Congress standardizes U.S. weights and measures.

Government

Gracie Mansion, home of New York City mayors, is completed.

Science

The Rosetta Stone is found near Rosetta, Egypt; when it is translated, it makes the deciphering of Egyptian hieroglyphics possible.

Technology

Airplanes: Sir George Cayley (1773-1857), a baronet in Yorkshire, near Scarborough, England, conceives a craft with stationary wings to provide lift and "flappers" to provide thrust. It also has a movable tail to provide control.

Education

Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827) opens his school in Burgdorf, Switzerland.

Education

A 14-year-old boy graduates from Rhode Island College. Such ability among children is not uncommon; infants of 3 are sometimes taught to read Latin as soon as they are taught English.

Washington, Martha

George Washington (1732-1799), first President of the U.S., dies of a throat infection at his home at Mount Vernon.

Monroe, Elizabeth

J.S Monroe (1799-1801), the only son of President James Monroe and Elizabeth Monroe, is born.

Economics

Alexander Hamilton (1755-1804) describes American industry in "Report on the Subject of Manufactures."

Economics

Russia grants the Russian-American Company a monopoly of trade in Alaska.

Discovery

A perfectly preserved mammoth is found in Siberia.

Daily Life

The metric system is established in France.

Social Issues

Slavery: Virginia banishes white mothers of mulattos with their children.

Reform

Labor Movement: The first recorded use of the term scabs, used to refer to those who take the place of striking workers, occurs during a Philadelphia shoemakers’ strike.

Politics

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) is elected the 3rd President of the U.S. and Aaron Burr (1756-1836) is elected the 3rd Vice President.

Government

National Capital: Washington, DC is established as the capital of the United States; Congress meets there for the first time.

Government

The U.S. Congress passes the first bankruptcy law; founding father Robert Morris is released from debtors’ prison.

Government

Spain cedes the Louisiana territory to France.

Government

Congress divides the Northwest Territory into two territories, Indiana and Ohio.

Government

Presidents: Millard Fillmore (1800-1874), 13th President of the U.S., is born in Locke Township (now Summerhill), New York.

Science

William Herschel (1738-1822) discovers infrared light.

Medicine

Benjamin Waterhouse (1754-1846) gives the first smallpox vaccination in the U.S. to his son.

Medicine

Humphry Davy (1778-1829) announces the anaesthetic properties of nitrous oxide.

Inventions

Alessandro Volta (1745-1827) invents the electric battery.

Inventions

An iron-framed printing press is invented by Charles Stanhope (1753-1816), thus allowing large sheet printing.

Inventions

Railroad History: Oliver Evans (1755-1819), an American, creates the earliest successful non-condensing high pressure stationary steam-engine

Technology

Battery Technology: By 1800 Volta (1745-1827) had created the "crown of cups", a modified arrangement of zinc and silver discs dipped in a salt solution.

Education

Libraries: The Library of Congress is proposed by John Adams.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: William Wordsworth (1770-1850) begins the period known as European Romanticism.

Arts and Letters

Parson Weems (1759-1825) writes "The Life of Washington," creating a number of myths about the first American president.

Arts and Letters

C.B. Brown (1771-1810) publishes "Arthur Mervyn," a realistic description of the yellow fever epidemic in Philadelphia that took the lives of Dolley Madison’s husband and infant son.

Adams, Abigail

John Adams (1735-1826) and Abigail Adams (1744-1818) are the first U.S. President and First Lady to actually live in the new capital, Washington, DC. Abigal is also the first wife of a president to live in the White House.

Adams, Abigail

Charles Adams (1770-1800), son of Abigail and John Adams, dies at age 30 of cirrhosis of the liver.

Harrison, Anna

Lucy Singleton Harrison Este (1800-1826), daughter of William Henry and Anna Harrison, is born in September.

Fillmore, Abigail

Abigail Powers' (1898-1853) father, a Baptist minister named Lemuel Powers, dies when she is two.

Economics

Population: The population of Washington, DC is 2,464 free citizens and 623 slaves.

Economics

Population: The second national census puts the U.S. population at 5.3 million, including more than 800,000 slaves.

Economics

William Young of Philadelphia is the first American shoemaker to make different shoes for the left and right feet.

Daily Life

Fireboats are in use in New York harbor.

Sports

Boxing: Bill Richmond (1763-1829), a former slave, becomes one of the first popular boxers.

Popular Culture

Mount Vernon Gardens becomes the site of the first summer theatre in the U.S.

Popular Culture

U.S. Marine Band gives its first concert near the future site of the Lincoln Memorial.

Religion

John Chapman (1774-1845) (Johnny Appleseed) begins spreading religious tracts and apple seeds in pioneer communities in the midwest.

Religion

The Church of the United Brethren in Christ is founded in the U.S.

Religion

The Boston Female Society for Missionary Purposes is founded to fund the education of missionaries, initially male, but later also female.

Social Issues

Slavery: A slave named Gabriel Prosser (1775-1800), believing himself called by God, organizes a plot to kill all whites in Virginia, sparing only Quakers, Methodists, and French. The conspirators meet under the pretense of holding religious meetings.

Reform

Utopian Movement: Robert Owen (1771-1858) takes over New Lanark mills in Scotland and begins social reforms there.

Reform

Elizabeth Peck Perkins (1735?-1807) founds the Boston Female Asylum, the first charitable institution for women there.

Law

Chief Justices: President John Adams (1735-1826) nominates John Marshall (1755-1835) as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. He serves for 34 years, longer than any other Chief Justice.

Government

Great Britain and Ireland unite, creating the United Kingdom; its flag is the Union Jack.

Government

National Capital: Congress takes jurisdiction over the District of Columbia.

Government

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) and Aaron Burr (1756-1836) are inaugurated as the 3rd President and Vice President of the U.S.

Government

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) presents his first annual message to Congress in writing.

War

North African War: The North African state of Tripoli declares war on the United States to compel the young nation to pay tribute to commerce-raiding Arab corsairs.

Science

The first asteroid is discovered by Italian monk and professor of astronomy Giussepe Piazzi (1746-1826).

Science

J.J. Lalande (1732-1807) catalogues 47,300 stars.

Science

Lamarck (1744-1829) develops a classification system for invertebrate animals.

Inventions

Robert Fulton (1765-1815), civil engineer, produces the first submarine, “Nautilis.”

Inventions

Richard Trevithick (1771-1833) invents the first steam powered locomotive (designed for roads).

Education

Catholic Education: The first Roman Catholic school in New York is established.

Education

Libraries: The Library of Congress is established by a vote of the Congress.

Education

The Royal College of Surgeons is founded in London.

Arts and Letters

In France Napoleon opened the Louvre to the public.

Ideas

German philosopher Friedrich von Schelling (1755-1829) writes "System of Transcendental Idealism," a treatise on the philosophy of nature, which influences the development of Romanticism in Europe.

Adams, Abigail

John (1735-1826) and Abigail (1744-1818) Adams retire to Braintree.

Madison, Dolley

James Madison (1751-1836) becomes Secretary of State and the Madisons move to the new capital, Washington, DC. Dolley Madison (1768-1849) finds herself a social leader in the city.

Madison, Dolley

Dolley Madison (1768-1849) becomes an unofficial White House hostess for Jefferson, whose wife, Martha, died in 1782.

Madison, Dolley

James Madison’s father dies; Madison inherits Montpelier.

Adams, Louisa

George Washington Adams (1801-1829), son of President John Quincy Adams and Louisa Adams, is born April 12.

Monroe, Elizabeth

J.S Monroe (1799-1801), the only son of President James Monroe and Elizabeth Monroe, dies on September 28 at age two. Cause of death is unknown.

Economics

Great Britain’s first complete census finds the population at 11 million, one quarter of it urban.

Discovery

Mastodon fossils are discovered on a New York farm, the first such fossils of the extinct mammal.

Discovery

Lewis and Clark: Lewis (1774-1811) is asked by President Jefferson (1743-1826) to be his secretary-aide.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The New York "Evening Post" is first published.

Religion

The “Plan of Union” permits Congregationalists and Presbyterian ministers to serve in each other’s churches, thus helping to spread Protestantism to frontier communities.

Religion

Catholics are excluded from voting in the United Kingdom and Ireland.

Government

Georgia cedes her western lands to the U.S., the last of the original states to do so.

Government

National Capitol: Congress passes an act calling for the establishment of a library within the U.S. capitol.

War

Revolutionary War: The U.S. and Great Britain settle Revolutionary War claims for $2,664,000.

Science

Samuel Hutton explains the natural processes involved in changes in the earth’s crust.

Science

The role of capillaries in pumping blood is explained by Scottish physicist John Leslie.

Science

John Dalton (1766-1844) introduces atomic theory into chemistry.

Science

The term “biology” is coined by German naturalist Gottfried Treviranus (1776-1837).

Medicine

James Smith opens a clinic in Maryland that offers free smallpox vaccinations to the poor.

Education

Higher Education: The U.S. Military Academy at West Point is founded.

Education

Libraries: The Library of Congress issues its first catalog: total holdings, 964 volumes and 9 maps.

Education

Libraries: John Beckley (1757-1807) becomes the first Librarian of Congress; he is paid $2/day.

Ideas

Education of Women: German feminist Amalie Holst publishes "On the Capacity of Women for Higher Education."

Ideas

Daniel Webster (1782-1852) writes "The Rights of Neutral Nations in Time of War."

Washington, Martha

Martha Dandridge Custis Washington (1731-1802) dies of “severe fever” on May 22 at Mt. Vernon.

Harrison, Anna

William Henry Harrison (1802-1838), son of William Henry and Anna Harrison, is born September 3.

Economics

Merino sheep are imported to the U.S. from Spain.

Discovery

Matthew Flinders (1744-1814) lands on a 96-mile-long island south-west of Adelaide and slaughtered 31 kangaroos for a feast. This 3rd largest island off Australia was thus named Kangaroo Island.

Sports

Horse Racing: New York State prohibits public horse races, only allowing them at private jockey clubs.

Popular Culture

The first comic book, "The Wasp," is published.

Popular Culture

The first chess book, "Chess Made Easy," is published in Philadelphia.

Religion

"The Genius of Christianity," by Chateaubriand (1768-1848), attempts to answer the attacks of the Enlightenment by stressing its role in the growth of European culture.

Reform

Labor Movement: The first important labor law protecting children is passed in Great Britain.

Law

In "Marbury v. Madison," the U.S. Supreme Court declares a law passed by Congress to be unconstitutional, thereby establishing the principle of judicial review.

Law

The Twelfth Amendment to the Constitution, providing for separate ballots for President and Vice President, is passed by Congress.

Government

New State: Ohio becomes the 17th state in the U.S. on March 1.

Government

Land from the Gulf of Mexico to the northwest, and including Louisiana and New Orleans, is purchased from France for $27 million; the U. S. Senate ratifies the Louisiana Purchase.

Science

John Dalton (1766-1844) arranges the atomic elements in a periodic table for the first time.

Science

John James Audubon (1785-1851) does the first banding of wild American birds.

Medicine

A detailed description of hemophilia is published by Pennsylvania physician John C. Otto (1774-1844).

Medicine

German pharmacist Friedrich Wilhelm Adam Serturner (1783-1841) makes morphine from opium. Physicians are delighted that opium has been tamed. Morphine is lauded for its reliability and safety.

Inventions

Robert Fulton (1765-1815) powers a boat with steam.

Education

Alexander I of Russia (1777-1825) establishes free, universal education.

Education

The Englishman, Joseph Lancaster (1778-1838) writes "Improvements in Education as it Respects the Industrious Classes." His ideas will be known as the Lancastrian Method.

Education

Education of Women: Maria Dalle Donne (1778-1842) is appointed director of midwives at the University of Bologna, often lecturing in her own home.

Monroe, Elizabeth

Maria Hester Monroe Gouverneur (1803-1850), daughter of President James Monroe and Elizabeth Monroe, is born in France. She was the first presidential child to be married in the White House.

Adams, Louisa

John Adams II (1803-1834), son of President John Quincy Adams and Louisa Adams, is born on the 4th of July.

Polk, Sarah

Sarah Childress (1803-1891), future wife of James K. Polk (1795-1849) is born on a plantation near Murfreesboro, Tennessee.

Economics

The population of India is estimated at 200 million, about the same size as all of Europe.

Discovery

Lewis and Clark: Lewis (1774-1811) is picked to be the commander of the expedition; he writes to ask William Clark (1770-1838) to join him and share command. Clark accepts.

Daily Life

Jane Aitkin (1764-1832), American printer, bookseller, and bookbinder, publishes the constitution of the Philadelphia Female Association.

Religion

Missionary Peter Cartwright (1785-1872) begins 50 years of circuit riding and preaching on the American frontier.

Social Issues

Native Americans: Louisiana Purchase brings a greater number of trading posts into Indian Territory.

Social Issues

Slavery: Ohio is admitted to the Union as a free state.

Social Issues

Slavery: Denmark becomes the first country to ban slave trade.

Law

The Twelfth Amendment to the Constitution, providing for separate ballots for President and Vice President, is ratified by two-thirds of the states and added to the Constitution.

Politics

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) is re-elected President of the U.S., and George Clinton (1739-1812) is elected as the 4th Vice President of the U.S.

Government

Napoleon Bonaparte (1869-1821) is crowned Emperor of France.

Government

Presidents: Franklin Pierce (1804-1869), 14th President of the U.S., is born in Hillsborough (now Hillsboro), New Hampshire.

War

North African War: Barbary pirates in Tripoli seize and hold the U.S. frigate Philadelphia; Stephen Decatur (1779-1820) and a small group of men destroy it.

Inventions

Railroad History: Matthew Murray of Leeds (1765-1826) , England invents a steam locomotive which runs on timber rails. This is probably the FIRST RAILROAD ENGINE.

Inventions

Railroad History: Richard Trevithick (1771-1833) of Cornwall builds 40 psi steam locomotive for the Welsh Penydarran Railroad.

Technology

Airplanes: Sir George Cayley (1773-1857), England, builds a miniature glider with a single wing and a movable tail mounted on a universal joint. It also has a movable weight to adjust the center of gravity. It is the first recorded fixed-wing aircraft of any size capable of flight.

Technology

John C. Stevens (c.1748-1838) builds a screw-driven boat.

Technology

A method of canning food is developed.

Technology

Shrapnel, named after British soldier Henry Shrapnel (1761-1842), is used for the first time by the British in a war with the Dutch in Africa.

Education

Libraries: “Coonskin Libraries” come into being in Marietta, Ohio when settlers on the Ohio River barter coonskins for books from Boston merchants.

Education

Children''s Books: Ann (1782-1866) and Jane (1783-1824) Taylor of England write stories, nursery rhymes, and hymns; their best-known work is “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star.”

Education

The first Board of Education in New York City comes into being.

Arts and Letters

Beethoven’s (1770-1827) "Third Symphony" (the "Eroica") establishes the symphony as a premier form of classical music.

Jefferson, Martha

Mary "Polly" "Maria" Jefferson Eppes (1778-1804), daughter of Thomas and Martha Jefferson, dies from childbirth complications on April 17 at the age of 25.

Madison, Dolley

A portrait of Dolley Madison (1764-1849) is painted by Gilbert Stuart (1764-1849).

Harrison, Anna

John Scott Harrison (1804-1878), son of William Henry and Anna Harrison, is born October 4.

Discovery

Lewis and Clark: President Thomas Jefferson commissions Merriweather Lewis (1774-1809) and William Clark (1770-1838) to explore the newly acquired Louisiana Territory and begin their journey; Sacajawea (1787-1812), the Shoshoni Indian wife of a French-Canadian trader, is one of their guides.

Daily Life

The first dahlias appear in England.

Daily Life

Bananas are imported from Cuba.

Sports

Women in Sports: Horse Racing: The first woman jockey was Alicia Meynell of England. She first competed in a four-mile race in York, England.

Social Issues

Slavery: Ohio passes black laws to deter runaway slaves from settling in the state.

Social Issues

Slavery: In Pennsylvania, the Underground Railroad is officially established.

Social Issues

Native Americans: The Sioux and other tribes encounter the Lewis (1774-1809) and Clark (1770- 1838) expedition.

Government

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) is inaugurated for his second term as President, and George Clinton (1739-1812) is inaugurated for his first term as Vice President.

Government

The Michigan Territory is created from the northern part of the Indiana Territory.

War

Admiral Horatio Nelson (1758-1805) defeats the French in the Battle of Trafalgar, making Great Britain the leading naval power in the world.

Science

Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778-1850)proves that water is composed of two parts hydrogen and one part oxygen.

Medicine

The syndrome later called “shell shock” or “battle fatigue” is described by Richard Gallagher.

Technology

Rockets, originally constructed by Sir William Congreave (1772-1828), are reintroduced as weapons into the British army.

Technology

The first covered bridge is built in the U.S. over the Schuylkill River near Philadelphia.

Education

Public Education: New York State creates a permanent school fund.

Education

Johann Pestalozzi (1746-1827) opens his school in Yverdon, Switzerland.

Education

Public Education: New York Public School Society is formed by wealthy businessmen to provide education for poor children. Schools are run on the "Lancasterian" model, in which one "master" can teach hundreds of students in a single room. The master gives a rote lesson to the older students, who then pass it down to the younger students. These schools emphasize discipline and obedience qualities that factory owners want in their workers.

Arts and Letters

The Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts is organized.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: "The Lay of the Last Minstrel," by Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832), is the first full-length narrative poem in the Romantic tradition.

Economics

Shipping ice to Martinique in the West Indies becomes a profitable business.

Discovery

Lewis and Clark: On November 24, by majority vote, the expedition decides to cross to the south side of the Columbia River to build winter quarters.

Discovery

Lewis and Clark: The expedition reaches the three forks of the Missouri River, then on to Montana and the Columbia River, 20 miles from the Pacific Ocean.

Sports

Women in Sports: Hot Air Balloons: Madeleine Sophie Armant Blanchard solos in the first of 67 gas-powered balloon flights. She made her living as a balloonist, was appointed official Aeronaut of the Empire by Napoleon, and toured Europe until she fell to her death in an aerial fireworks display in 1819.

Sports

Women in Sports: Horse Racing: Englishwoman Alicia Meynell, riding as Mrs. Thornton, defeats a leading male jockey, Buckle, in a race.

Sports

Boxing: Tom Cribb (1781-1848), the champion of English bare-knuckle boxers, first enters the ring.

Popular Culture

Ludwig Achim von Arnim (1781-1831), German folklorist, publishes Des Knaben Wunderhorn, setting the stage for the work of the Brothers Grimm.

Religion

Slavery: Virginia allows slaves to accompany white masters to religious services presided over by white preachers.

Government

The abdication of Emperor Francis II (1768-1835) signals the end of the Holy Roman Empire.

Government

Holland becomes a kingdom ruled by Louis Bonaparte (1778-1846).

War

The British seize the colony of Capetown in Africa from the French-dominated Dutch.

Medicine

Morphine becomes the first drug to be isolated from a plant.

Technology

Coal gas is first used for lighting at Newport, Rhode Island.

Education

Noah Webster (1758-1843) publishes "The Compendious Dictionary of the English Language," which becomes the recognized authority on American English. The letters i and j and u and v are established as separate letters.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Lord Byron (1788-1824) privately publishes "Fugitive Pieces," which is immediately suppressed by the Church of England on grounds of immorality.

Jefferson, Martha

James Madison Randolph (1806-), the grandson of Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), is the first child born in the White House.

Pierce, Jane

Jane Means Appleton (1806-1863), future wife of President Franklin Pierce (1804-1869), is born March 12 in Hampton, New Hampshire.

Harrison, Anna

Benjamin Harrison (1806-1840), son of William Henry and Anna Harrison, is born.

Discovery

Lewis and Clark: January 4, President Jefferson welcomes a delegation of Missouri, Oto, Arikara, and Yankton Sioux chiefs who had met with Lewis (1774-1811) and Clark more than a year earlier.

Discovery

Lewis and Clark: March 23, Fort Clatsop is presented to the Clatsop Indian, for which it was named, and the expedition begins the journey home.

Discovery

Lewis and Clark: In the fall, Lewis (1774-1811) and Clark (1770-1838) are treated as national heroes. They return to Washington, D.C. The men receive double pay and 320 acres of land as reward, the captains get 1,600 acres. Lewis is named governor of the Louisiana Territory, Clark is made Indian agent for the West and brigadier general of the territory's militia.

Discovery

Zebulon Pike (1779-1813) identifies the Colorado peak that will eventually bear his name.

Discovery

Mungo Park’s (1771-1806) final Niger River expedition ends tragically when he and several other are attacked and killed by African tribesmen.

Sports

Horse Racing: “Yankee” becomes the first horse to trot a mile in under 3 minutes.

Politics

Scandal: Aaron Burr (1756-1836), Vice President under Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), is arrested for treason for planning to invade Mexico; he is later acquitted of all charges.

Government

In an effort to punish Great Britian for impressing American sailors, Congress passes the Embargo Act, which prohibits American vessels from landing in any foreign port without the express authorization of the President.

War

War of 1812: The U.S. frigate "Chesapeake" fires on the British man-of-war Leopard in conflict over the impressments of sailors.

Science

Potassium and sodium are discovered by Sir Humphrey Davy (1778-1829).

Science

A huge meteor lands in Connecticut.

Inventions

Isaac de Rivas makes a hydrogen gas powered vehicle - first with internal combustion power, however it is a very unsuccessful design.

Technology

London streets are lit by gas light.

Technology

Robert Fulton’s (1765-1815) paddle steamer, the Clermont, navigates on the Hudson River.

Education

Children''s Books: Charles (1775-1834) and Mary (1764-1847) Lamb publish "Tales from Shakespeare," a collection of children’s stories based on the plays.

Education

Libraries: The Athenaeum Library is founded in Boston.

Arts and Letters

Architecture: Napoleon (1769-1821) commissions the construction of the Arch de Triumphe.

Adams, Louisa

Charles Frances Adams (1807-1886), son of President John Quincy Adams and Louisa Adams, is born on August 18.

Van Buren, Hannah

Abraham Van Buren (1807-1873), son of Martin and Hannah Van Buren is born on November 27.

Economics

The manufacture of clocks with interchangeable parts is begun in Connecticut by Seth Thomas (1785-1859) and Eli Terry (1772-1852).

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: The very first passenger train runs from Swansea to Mumbles in England on March 25th.

Economics

Transportation: The first steamboat with regular passenger service is instituted by Robert Fulton's Clermont (1765-1815).

Discovery

Zebulon Pike (1779-1813) leads first Anglo American expedition into New Mexico. He publishes account of way of life in New Mexico upon return to U.S.

Daily Life

Townsend Speakman 1st sells fruit-flavored carbonated drinks in Philadelphia

Daily Life

Townsend Speakman sells first fruit-flavored carbonated drinks in Philadelphia

Sports

Horse Racing: The first Ascot Gold Cup in horse racing is held in England.

Religion

The U.S. Evangelical Association, founded by Jacob Albright (1759-1808), holds its first convention.

Social Issues

Slavery: England prohibits the African slave trade.

Reform

Women's Suffrage Movement: New Jersey revokes the right of women to vote which it had granted in 1776.

Law

"The American Law Journal," America’s earliest law periodical, is published.

Politics

James Madison (1751-1836) is elected as the 4th President of the U.S., defeating Charles Pickney; George Clinton (1739-1812)is reelected as Vice President.

Government

Presidents: Andrew Johnson (1808-1875), 17th President of the U.S., is born December 29 in Raleigh, North Carolina.

Government

Slavery: The United States bans slave trade that involves importing African slaves, but smuggling continues.

Science

Sir Humphrey Davy (1778-1829) discovers the elements boron and strontium.

Inventions

Railroad History: Trevithick (1771-1833) builds a circular railway in London's Torrington Square. Steam carriage "Catch Me Who Can" weighes 10 tons and makes 15 mph.

Education

Higher Education: Andover Theological Seminary is established.

Education

Education of Women: Catholic Education: Elizabeth Seton (1774-1821) establishes a school for girls in Baltimore, Maryland.

Arts and Letters

Drama: Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1837) publishes the first section of his Romantic epic, "Faust," in Germany.

Arts and Letters

Beethoven (1770-1827) composes the "Fifth" and the "Pastoral" Symphonies.

Ideas

Women''s Rights Movement: Charles Fourier’s (1772-1837) "Theory of the Four Movements" relates social progress to the progress of women toward freedom.

Madison, Dolley

Dolley Madison (1768-1849) accompanies her husband in his campaign for the presidency, influencing many with her charm and tact.

Jackson, Rachel

Andrew Jackson Jr. (1808-1865), Andrew and Rachel Jackson's adopted son (he was one of the pair of twins born to a sibling of Rachel Jackson), is born and named after his new father.

Economics

John Jacob Astor (1763-1848) incorporates the American Fur Company with himself as the sole stockholder.

Discovery

Extensive excavations begin at Pompeii and last until 1815.

Discovery

The source of the Ganges River is discovered.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The "Times" of London sends Henry Crabb Robinson (1775-1867) as the first war correspondent to cover Napoleon’s (1769-1821) campaign in Spain.

Religion

Napoleon (1769-1821) abolishes the Inquisition in Spain and Italy.

Religion

Women''s Firsts: Jane Aitken (1764-1832) publishes the only Bible ever printed by a woman in the U.S. up to this date.

Religion

The first Bible Society is established in Philadelphia.

Government

James Madison (1751-1836)is inaugurated as the nation's fourth President and George Clinton is inaugurated as the continuing Vice President.

Government

The Illinois Territory, including what is now Wisconsin, is established.

Government

Presidents: Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865), 16th President of the U.S. is born February 12 in Hardin (now Larue) County, Kentucky.

War

Indian Wars: General William Henry Harrison (1773-1841) obtains over 3 million acres of Indian lands with the Treaty of Fort Wayne.

Science

The first detailed geological survey of the United States is published by William McClure.

Inventions

The steamboat is patented by Robert Fulton (1765-1815).

Inventions

Airplanes: The first successful glider is built in England.

Technology

Women's Firsts: The first patent given to a woman was to Mary Kies of Connecticut, for a technique for weaving straw with silk and thread.

Arts and Letters

Architecture: Neoclassicism emerges as a dominant force in British architecture with the construction of Covent Garden Theatre.

Madison, Dolley

Dolley Madison (1768-1849) becomes the first First Lady to attend her husband's inauguration and the first to host an inaugural ball.

Adams, Louisa

John Quincy Adams (1767-1848) is appointed American minister to Russia.

Harrison, Anna

Mary Symmes Harrison Thornton (1809-1842), daughter of William Henry and Anna Harrison is born January 22.

Economics

The U.S. resumes trade with all countries except Britain and France.

Economics

The "Phoenix" becomes the first sea-going steamship, traveling from New York to Philadelphia.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The first newspaper published west of the Mississippi River, the "Missouri Gazette," is published in St. Louis.

Sports

Cricket: The first cricket club is founded in Boston.

Popular Culture

Washington Irving (1783-1859) writes "Rip van Winkle."

Religion

Napoleon (1769-1821) annexes the Papal States and takes Pope Pius VII prisoner.

Religion

Elizabeth Seton (1774-1821) founds the Sisters of Charity of St. Joseph in the U.S.

Reform

The African Female Benevolent Society of Newport (RI) is founded.

Politics

Simon Bolivar (1783-1830) emerges as a major figure in South American politics.

Government

Chile declares its independence from Spain.

War

Southerners revolt against Spanish rule in West Florida; the U.S. annexes the area.

Science

John Dalton (1766-1844) publishes "New System of Chemical Philosophy," the foundation for modern chemistry.

Science

Charles Bell’s (1744-1842) "Anatomy of the Brain," studies the difference between sensory and motor nerves.

Science

Nicotine is identified and named after Jean Nicot (c.1530-1600), who sent tobacco back to France.

Medicine

The first American book on pediatrics, "The Maternal Physician," is published in Philadelphia.

Medicine

The field of homeopathy is founded by German physician Samuel Hahnemann (1755-1843) ; it is not called by this name until 1826.

Technology

Airplanes: Sir George Cayley (1773-1857) tries three times to organize an aeronautical society to study the problem of flight, but finds little interest among scientists.

Education

Yale Medical School is established.

Education

Parochial Education: Elizabeth Seton (1774-1821) and her community of sisters founds the first American Catholic parochial school in Emmitsburg, Maryland.

Education

Education of Women: German feminist and educator Betty Gleim publishes "On the Upbringing and Instruction of the Female Sex."

Arts and Letters

Literature: Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832) writes "Lady of the Lake."

Arts and Letters

The Philharmonic Society in Boston is organized by Gottlieb Graupner (1767-1836).

Arts and Letters

The San Carlo Opera House is built in Naples, Italy.

Arts and Letters

American Theatre: During this year, English stars begin to come in larger numbers to U.S.

Van Buren, Hannah

John Van Buren (1807-1873), son of Martin and Hannah Van Buren is born February 18.

Johnson, Eliza

Eliza McCardle (1810-1876), future wife of President Andrew Johnson (1808–1875), is born October 4th in Leesburg, Tennessee.

Economics

Population: The U.S. population is about 7,239,881, including 60,000 immigrants and about 1.2 million slaves; New York City becomes the largest city in the U.S.

Economics

Cornelius Vanderbilt (1794-1877) founds a ferry service between New York City and Staten Island.

Economics

The American cotton crop exceeds 175,000 bales; American cotton mills quadruple in one year to 269.

Sports

The first public billiards rooms open in London.

Sports

Boxing: Tom Molineaux (1784-1818), a freed Virginia slave and the first unofficial heavy-weight boxing champion, is defeated in the 40th round in a match in England.

Popular Culture

The first American county fair (a cattle show) is held in Pittsfield, Massachusetts.

Religion

The Cumberland Presbytery in Kentucky is excluded from the Presbyterian Church.

Religion

The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions is established, beginning a wide missionary effort in the U.S.

Social Issues

Native Americans: The Shawnee, under Tecumseh (1768-1813), begin to establish a tribal confederacy to preserve their lands and culture.

Social Issues

Abortion: Abortion is made a criminal offense in France.

Government

Scandal: U.S. Senator Timothy Pickering (1745-1829) becomes the first senator to be censured when he reveals confidential documents communicated by the President of the United States (John Adams).

Government

The Prince of Wales, later George IV (1762-1830), becomes Prince Regent of England after George III (1738-1820) is declared insane.

War

Indian Wars: William Henry Harrison (1773-1841), Governor of the Indiana Territories, defeats Indians under Tecumseh (1768-1813) at Tippecanoe, IN.

Science

Iodine is isolated by French chemist Bernard Courtois (1777-1838).

Science

William Herschel (1738-1822) suggests that a nebula is an early stage in the development of a galaxy.

Science

Mary Anning (1799-1847), British geologist, at age 12 is involved in the finding of the first identifiable icthyosaurus and later of a plesiosaur.

Medicine

Sir Charles Bell (1774-1842) writes "New Idea of the Anatomy of the Brain."

Education

Education of Women: Sarah Pierce (1767-1852), founder of the Litchfield Academy, publishes "Sketches of Universal History Compiled from Several Authors: For the Use of Schools."

Education

African American Education: Christopher McPherson (c.1763-?) , a free African American, opens a school for other free Blacks and slaves in Richmond, Virginia. Local white citizens, not only close the school as a public nuisance, but they also send him to the Williamsburg Lunatic Asylum.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Jane Austen (1775-1817) writes "Sense and Sensibility."

Taylor, Margaret

Anne Margaret Mackell Taylor Wood (1811-1875), daughter of Zachary and Margaret Taylor, is born April 9.

Adams, Louisa

Louisa Catherine Adams (1811-1812), the only daughter of John Quincy and Louisa Adams, is born.

Economics

Work begins on the Cumberland Road at Cumberland, Maryland; the road reaches Vandalia, Illinois in 1840, at a cost of $7 million, and becomes an important route for the westward expansion of the U.S.

Discovery

The eastern coast of Africa is explored by English naval captain Philip Beaver.

Daily Life

Disasters: Earthquakes beginning on December 16 cause the Mississippi River to flow upstream for several hours; the town of New Madrid, Missouri, is pushed into the river.

Sports

Women in Sports: Golf: On January 9, the first known women’s golf tournament is held at Musselburgh Golf Club, Scotland, among the town fishwives.

Sports

Competitive rowing races are popular; a race between Knickerbocker of New York City and Invincible of Long Island attracts thousands; Knickerbocker wins.

Religion

The “Great Schism” of Welsh Protestants occurs; two thirds leave the Anglican Church.

Religion

The Presbyterian Church in the U. S. formally states its support for “pious females,” who had begun organizing independent, female-run benevolent societies to support foreign and domestic missionaries, teachers, and doctors.

Reform

Labor Movement: “Luddites” destroy weaving machines in North England, trying to prevent conversion from hand looms.

Politics

James Madison (1751-1836) is re-elected to a second term as President of the U.S. and Elbridge Gerry (1744-1814) is elected the nation's 5th Vice President.

Politics

The term gerrymander is coined, meaning the practice of dividing a geographic area into voting districts in such a way that one political party is given unfair advantage in an election. The practice is named for Elbridge Gerry, who first thought of doing it, and salamander, because the original voting district resulting from the practice looked like a salamander.

Government

New State: Louisiana becomes the 18th state in the U.S.

Government

George Clinton (1729-1812), 4th Vice President of the United States, dies in office. He is not replaced until the general election in the fall, when Elbridge Gerry is elected.

War

War of 1812: The U.S. declares war on Britain.

War

War of 1812: The U.S. frigate Constitution, Old Ironsides, defeats the British ship Guerriere.

Science

Georges Couvier (1769-1832) discovers that fossils follow an increasing age sequence as one probes deeper into layers of rock and soil.

Medicine

Benjamin Rush (1745-1813) publishes "Medical Inquiries and Observation Upon the Diseases of the Mind."

Medicine

Physician James Thatcher publishes a book about rabies.

Technology

Transportation: Transportation technology is advanced by Scotsman Henry Bell (1767-1830) with his new steamboat, the three-horsepower Comet, which sails on the River Clyde.

Education

Children''s Books: The Brothers Grimm--Jacob (1785-1863) and Wilhelm (1786-1859)-- publish their "Fairy Tales," which include Tom Thumb, Little Red-Riding Hood, Bluebeard, Snow White, and Cinderella.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Lord Byron (1788-1824) writes "Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage."

Arts and Letters

The final shipment of Elgin Marbles—a group of ancient sculptures and architectural details from the Parthenon obtained from the Turks by Lord Elgin (1776-1841)—arrives in England from Greece, giving Londoners their first taste of original classical Greek art.

Ideas

German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Hegel (1770-1831) publishes "Die Objektive Logik."

Madison, Dolley

White House Wedding: At the first wedding in the White House, Dolley Madison's (1768-1849) widowed sister, Lucy Payne Washington (1777?-1846), is married to Supreme Court Justice Thomas Todd.

Adams, Louisa

Louisa Catherine Adams (1811-1812), the only daughter of John Quincy and Louisa Adams, dies in St. Petersburg, Russia.

Van Buren, Hannah

Martin Van Buren (1812-1855), son of Martin and Hannah Van Buren, is born December 20.

Harrison, Anna

Carter Bassett Harrison (1812-1839), son of William Henry and Anna Harrison, is born October 26.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: The first commercially successful steam locomotives, using the Blenkinsop rack and pinion drive, commenced operation on the Middleton Railway.

Economics

Transportation: The first steamboat to sail down the Mississippi River reaches New Orleans in January.

Economics

Large-scale drug production begins in Philadelphia.

Economics

The manufacture of lead pencils begins.

Economics

The City Bank of New York opens, the forerunner of today’s Citibank.

Discovery

Swiss historian J.L. Burckhardt (1773-1825) discovers the Great Temple at Abu Simbel in Egypt.

Discovery

Lewis and Clark: On December 20th Sacagawea (1790-1812/1884) dies at Fort Manuel. Clark (1770-1838), who is in St. Louis, assumes custody of Jean Baptiste, as well as her daughter, Lisette.

Popular Culture

The present Drury Lane Theatre in London is built.

Religion

Women''s Firsts: Ann Nancy Hesseltine Judson and Harriet Newell are the first two American women sent abroad as missionaries.

Religion

Mother Catherine Spaulding (1793-1858) founds the Sisters of Charity of Nazareth, Kentucky, a home-visiting order of nurses and teachers.

Religion

Elizabeth Seton (1774-1821) formally establishes the Sisters of Charity, the first Catholic sisterhood founded in America, from her earlier community (1809).

Government

James Madison (1751-1836) is inaugurated to a second term as President of the U.S. and Elbridge Gerry (1744-1814) is inaugurated as the nation's 5th Vice President.

War

War of 1812: U.S. forces capture York (now Toronto); the British seize Fort Niagara and burn Buffalo, NY; the British blockade coastal ports.

War

War of 1812: The Battle of Lake Erie (under Captain Oliver Hazard Perry) and the Battle of the Thames (Ontario) provide two victories for the Americans.

Inventions

Railroad History: Englishman William Hedley (1773-1843) builds and patents a railroad locomotive which can haul 10 coal wagons at 5 mph, equal to 10 horses.

Inventions

J.F. Hummel patents rubber.

Education

Higher Education: Colby College in Maine is founded.

Education

Higher Education: McGill University in Montreal, Canada, is founded.

Arts and Letters

The London Philharmonic Society is founded.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1827) completes his first major work, "Queen Mab"—an anti-religious work, at the age of 21.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Jane Austen (1775-1817) writes "Pride and Prejudice."

Adams, Abigail

Nabby Adams Smith (1765-1813), daughter of Abigail and John Adams, dies on August 15, of cancer.

Madison, Dolley

Dolley Madison (1764-1849) serves ice cream for the first time in the White House at the second Inaugural Ball.

Harrison, Anna

Anna Tuthill Harrison Taylor (1813-1845), daughter of William Henry and Anna Harrison, is born October 28.

Economics

Francis Cabot Lowell (1775-1817) first employs young women workers to work at the spinning frames and looms at his mill in Waltham, Massachusetts; living in boardinghouses established by Lowell, they became the first large-scale women’s labor force in America.

Daily Life

Newspapers: An editorial in the Troy (NY) Post first uses the nickname, “Uncle Sam,” as a symbolic reference to the United States.

Daily Life

The Grand Freemason Lodge is founded in the U.S.

Daily Life

Dancing: The waltz becomes popular in Europe.

Daily Life

The game of craps is first introduced into New Orleans, adapted from a French dice game called “hazards.”

Popular Culture

Johann Rudolf Wyss (1782-1830) completes "The Swiss Family Robinson."

Religion

The Methodist Missionary Society is founded.

Religion

A choirbook is composed for use in the Spanish missions of the southwest.

Religion

American nun Mother Mary Rhodes (1782-1853) founds the Sisters of Loretto in Kentucky after establishing two other communities for women west of the Allegheny Mountains.

Reform

Labor Movement: Leaders of the anti-technology Luddite movement in England are sentenced to hanging or deportation.

Government

Elbridge Gerry, 5th Vice President of the United Sates, dies in office; he is not replaced until the election of 1816, when Daniel D. Tompkins is elected.

War

National Capital: War of 1812: The British burn the White House, the Capital, and many other buildings in Washington, DC.

War

War of 1812: The Treaty of Ghent ends the British-American War on December 24. The Treaty returned conditions between the two countries to those that existed before the war began. Neither side achieved a clear victory.

Science

Massachusetts physician Jacob Bigelow (1786-1879) publishes "Flora Bostoniensis," the standard botany manual for years.

Inventions

Railroad History: George Stephenson (1781-1848), British inventor, invents the first steam locomotive, which is used instead of horses and mules to haul coal.

Inventions

The metronome is invented in Vienna by J.N. Maelzel (1772-1838).

Inventions

Eli Terry (1772-1852) invents a 30-hour shelf clock that uses interchangeable parts.

Inventions

Railroad History: Englishman George Stephenson (1781-1841) builds Blucher, his first railway engine. Pulls 30 tons at 4 mph, but is not efficient.

Education

Libraries: Although the Library of Congress is destroyed when the British burn Washington, DC, Congress decides to start over by purchasing Thomas Jefferson’s (1743-1826) personal library.

Arts and Letters

Franz Schubert (1797-1828) begins composing Lieder, lyrical songs in the Romantic tradition.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Jane Austen (1775-1817) publishes the novel "Mansfield Park," creating the character of Fanny Brice.

Madison, Dolley

Dolley Madison (1764-1849) is responsible for saving the famous Peale portrait of George Washington, hanging in the White House, and the Declaration of Independence, from the British when they invade the capital. She leaves the city just ahead of the British troops, who then burn Washington, DC.

Harrison, Anna

James Findlay Harrison (1814-1817), is the last son born to William Henry and Anna Harrison.

Taylor, Margaret

Sarah Knox Taylor Davis (1814-1835), daughter of Zachary and Margaret Taylor, is born March 6.

Fillmore, Abigail

Abigail Powers (Fillmore) (1798-1853) begins teaching in New Hope at age 16.

Economics

Francis Cabot Lowell (1775-1817) opens the first totally mechanized factory for processing raw cotton into finished cloth.

Daily Life

The term grapefruit is used for the first time in print, perhaps because its clusters resemble those of grapes.

Daily Life

Gas street lamps are installed in the first neighborhood—St. Margarets, Westminster, in London.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The "London Times" begins to be printed by a steam-operated press.

Popular Culture

Frances Scott Key (1779-1843) writes a poem about the British bombardment of Fort McHenry in the War of 1812 called “Defense of Fort McHenry.” It is later set to music and becomes “The Star Spangled Banner.”

Popular Culture

Children’s Books: Johann David Wyss (1743-1818) added religious piety to the Rousseauian influence in his "The Swiss Family Robinson"(German original 1812-1813); first edited and translated for English readers by William (1756-1836) and Mary (1797-1851) Godwin.

Religion

Pope Pius VII (1740-1823) returns to Rome and restores the Inquisition.

Religion

Elizabeth Seton’s (1774-1821) Sisters of Charity take charge of orphanages in Philadelphia (and later, in 1817, in New York City), establishing the first Catholic orphanages in America.

Social Issues

Native Americans: War of 1812: General Andrew Jackson (1767-1845) leads his troops to victory over the Creek Indians allied with Britain in the Battle of Horseshoe Bend (Alabama), thus destroying all future Creek power in the West.

Government

National Capital: The Capitol Building and the White House are rebuilt after the burning of Washington, DC.

War

The first steam warship, the U.S.S. Fulton is built.

War

U.S. naval hero Stephen Decatur (1779-1820) stops attacks by Algerian pirates by threatening to bomb Algiers.

War

Andrew Jackson (1767-1845) defeats the British at the Battle of New Orleans, fought two weeks after the Treaty of Ghent is signed.

Science

Sophie Germain (1776-1831) is awarded a gold medal from the Institute of France for her essay on elasticity.

Medicine

The Apothecaries Act in Britain bans the practice of medicine by unqualified doctors.

Inventions

A harder, smoother road surface made of crushed stones is invented by John McAdam (1756-1836).

Inventions

Davy invents the safety lamp for miners.

Inventions

Railroad History: Stephenson's (1781-1841) second engine: 6 wheels and a multitubular boiler.

Inventions

Railroad History: Englishman Julius Griffiths patents a passenger road locomotive.

Education

Libraries: Thomas Jefferson sells his book collection to the Library of Congress after its original collection was destroyed by the British army.

Education

Sunday school education is promoted in Boston.

Education

Education of Women: Margaret Bryan publishes An Astronomical and Geographical Class Book for Schools based on her girls’ school lectures.

Arts and Letters

The Biedermeier period in art and furniture design begins.

Arts and Letters

Magazines: "The North American Review" is established in Boston, soon to be the foremost literary journal in the U.S.

Tyler, Letitia

Mary Tyler Jones (1815-1848), is the first daughter born to John and Letitia Christian Tyler on April 15.

Economics

Leading imports in the United States are woolen and cotton items, sugar, and coffee. The leading export is cotton.

Daily Life

Transportation: The Conestoga wagon becomes a major method of transportation, especially among those headed west.

Daily Life

Dancing: A French ballroom dance, the quadrille, becomes fashionable among the English aristocracy.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: The 1815 edition of the Brockhaus Conversations-Lexikon lays out the division of the sexes: “Man obtains, woman sustains . . . man resists fate itself and defies force, even in defeat. Woman, however, submits willingly and finds comfort and succor, even in her tears.”

Law

The right to review state court decisions is affirmed by the Supreme Court.

Politics

James Monroe (1758-1831) is elected 5th President of the U.S. and Daniel Tomkins (1774-1825) is elected as the nation's 6th Vice President.

Government

New State: Indiana becomes the 19th state in the U.S.

Government

The U.S. Congress passes the first protective tariffs.

Science

The first book on mineralogy in the U.S., "Elementary Treatise on Mineralogy and Geology," is published by Parker Cleaveland (1780-1858).

Medicine

Epidemics: Ireland suffers a typhus epidemic that kills about a quarter of its population.

Inventions

The stethoscope is invented by French physician R. T. Laennec (1781-1826).

Inventions

The kaleidoscope is invented by Sir David Brewster (1781-1868).

Education

German educator Friedrich Frobel (1782-1852) moves his first educational community from Griesheim to Keilau, Thuringia.

Education

Children’s Books: "A Merry Method of Making Minor Mathematicians" is published by John Harris (1820-1884); this collection of mnemonic rhymes was designed to teach the multiplication tables.

Arts and Letters

Opera: "The Barber of Seville," by Gioacchino Rossini (1792-1868) opens in Rome.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Jane Austen (1775-1817) writes "Emma."

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1827) writes his first major poem, "Alastor."

Ideas

Hegel (1770-1831) completes his "Science of Logic;" his philosophy of idealism will dominate metaphysics for 25 years.

Taylor, Margaret

Octavia Pannel Taylor (1816-1820), daughter of Zachary and Margaret Taylor, is born August 16.

Tyler, Letitia

Robert Tyler (1816-1877), the first son of John and Letitia Christian Tyler, is born September 9.

Economics

Transportation: Regular clipper ship service across the Atlantic begins between New York and Liverpool, England.

Economics

The first Savings bank, The Provident Institute for Savings, is founded in Boston.

Economics

American Money: The second Bank of the United States is chartered for 20 years until 1836.

Daily Life

Disasters: The summer of 1916 is unusually cold in many parts of the world due to the eruption of the Tambora volcano in Indonesia—perhaps the greatest in recorded history. In New England, there is 10 inches of snow in June 6, and half an inch of ice in Vermont and New Hampshire in July and August. It is recorded as “the year in which there was no summer.”

Sports

Boxing: Jacob Hyer beats Tom Beasley in a boxing match and calls himself America’s first boxing champion.

Popular Culture

Ananias Davisson (1780-1857) publishes "Kentucky Harmony," a collection of music of the South and Midwest U.S.

Religion

The American Bible Society is founded; one of its goals is to place a Bible in every American home.

Social Issues

Immigration: Large numbers of British immigrants come to the United States and Canada.

Social Issues

The American Colonization Society forms—assists in repatriating free African Americans to a Liberian colony on the west coast of Africa.

Government

James Monroe (1758-1831) is inaugurated as the 5th President of the U.S. and Daniel Tomkins (1774-1825) is inaugurated as the nation's 6th Vice President.

Government

New State: Mississippi becomes the 20th state in the U.S.

War

Indian Wars: The Seminole War begins on the border between the U.S. and Spanish Florida.

Science

Selenium and lithium are discovered.

Science

Cadmium is discovered independently by Friedrich Stromeyer (1776-1835) and Hermann (1765-1846).

Medicine

James Parkinson (1755-1828) describes the degenerative disease that will carry his name.

Education

Early frontier education is influenced by the American Tract Society which spreads religious literature by means of circuit riders.

Education

Public Education: A petition presented in the Boston Town Meeting calls for establishing of a system of free public primary schools. Main support comes from local merchants, businessmen and wealthier artisans. Many wage earners oppose it, because they don't want to pay the taxes.

Arts and Letters

Opera: "Cinderella," a comic opera by Gioacchino Rossini (1792-1868), is first staged in Rome.

Ideas

David Ricardo (1772-1823) promotes liberal economic theory in his "Principles of Political Economy and Taxation;" his ideas are the foundation of modern economics as a science.

Ideas

G.F. Hegel (1770-1831) publishes the "Encyclopedia of Philosophy."

Madison, Dolley

The Madisons retire to Montpelier, their estate in Virginia, where Dolley continues her role as hostess and helps her husband, who suffers from arthritis, by taking dictation for his correspondence. She also helps him prepare his papers for future publication.

Van Buren, Hannah

Smith Thompson Van Buren (1817-1876), son of Martin and Hannah Van Buren is born January 16.

Harrison, Anna

James Findlay Harrison (1814-1817), the last son born to William Henry and Anna Harrison, dies.

Economics

Native Americans: American traders began to compete with Native American tribes for the buffalo fur business.

Economics

The U.S. begins construction of the Erie Canal between Buffalo and Albany.

Economics

The New York Stock and Exchange Board is officially established, to be renamed the New York Stock Exchange in 1863.

Economics

John Jacob Astor (1763-1848) obtains a fur trade monopoly in the Mississippi Valley, founding his fortune.

Daily Life

Baltimore becomes the first American city lit by gas.

Popular Culture

Stories of a sea serpent off the coast of Gloucester, Massachusetts tell of a creature 3 feet in diameter and from 70-100 feet long with a long tongue that shoots out of its mouth.

Religion

Construction of the Vatican Museum begins in Rome.

Social Issues

Slavery: The American Society for the Return of Negroes to Africa is founded in Richmond, Virginia; the Society first sends Negroes to Sierra Leone, then buys and establishes a neighboring area called Liberia.

Reform

Prison Reform: British reformer Elizabeth Fry (1780-1845) founds a prisoner’s aid society focusing on the prison conditions of women and children.

Government

The border between the U.S. and Canada is agreed to be the 49th parallel.

Government

New State: Illinois becomes the 21st state in the U.S.

Government

American Flag: The Act of April 4, 1818 states that 13 stripes and one star for each state will be added to the flag on the 4th of July following the admission of each new state and is signed into action by President Monroe.

Science

F.W. Bessel (1784-1846) catalogs over 3,000 stars in his Fundamenta Astronomiae.

Science

Cadmium is discovered independently by Friedrich Stromeyer (1776-1835) and Hermann (1765-1846).

Medicine

Iodine is used as a treatment for goiter by French chemist Jean-Baptiste Dumas (1800-1884).

Medicine

Marie Gillain Boivin (1776-1841) publishes her gynecological-obstetrical text, "Nouveau traité des maladies de l’uterus et des annexes."

Inventions

A lathe for making irregularly shaped items such as gun stocks is designed.

Education

Public Education: Boston public schools offer schooling for children as young as 4 years.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Lord Byron (1788-1824) writes "Don Juan."

Arts and Letters

Poetry: John Keats (1795-1821) writes "Endymion."

Arts and Letters

Literature: Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832) writes "The Heart of Midlothian" and "Rob Roy."

Arts and Letters

Literature: Mary Godwin Shelley (1797-1851) writes "Frankenstein."

Arts and Letters

Literature: Jane Austen’s (1775-1817) last two novels, "Northanger Abbey" and "Persuasion," are published after her death.

Adams, Abigail

Abigail Adams (1744-1818), second First Lady of the United States, dies of typhoid fever in October while residing in Braintree, MA.

Lincoln, Mary

Mary Todd Lincoln (1818-1882), future wife of Abraham Lincoln (1809–1865), is born on December 13 in Lexington, Kentucky.

Economics

Transportation: Packet boat lines begin to sail between New York and Liverpool, England.

Discovery

John Ross (1777-1856) leads an expedition to the Arctic to discover a Northwest Passage.

Daily Life

The tin can is introduced to the United States.

Sports

Horse Racing: The first professional horse racing occurs in the U.S.

Popular Culture

Englishman Thomas Bowdler (1754-1825) publishes a censored version of "The Family Shakespeare"; the expression to bowlderize becomes a term for the practice of omitting vulgar words from written works.

Religion

The lyrics for the hymn “Silent Night, Holy Night,” are written by the young curate, Joseph Mohr.

Law

'In "McCulloch v. Maryland," the Supreme Court expands federal powers by allowing Congress to charter a bank, an act not specifically permitted by the Constitution.

Government

Florida is ceded to the U.S. by Spain.

Government

New State: Alabama becomes the 22nd state in the U.S.

Government

The U.S. cities of Memphis and Minneapolis are founded.

Science

The American Geological Society is established at Yale College in Connecticut; it disbands in 1828.

Science

Electromagnetism is discovered by Danish physicist Hans C. Oersted (1777-1851).

Medicine

Mitscherlich discovers isomorphism.

Inventions

W.K. Clarkson patents the bicycle.

Education

Education of Women: Emma Hart Willard (1787-1870) writes "An Address to the Public: Particularly to the Members of the Legislature of New York, Proposing a Plan for Improving Female Education."

Education

Higher Education: Focusing on technical training, Norwich University opens in Vermont.

Education

Slavery: African American Education: Virginia outlaws blacks and a mulatto, whether free or slave, from meeting for the purposes of education and forbids teaching blacks to read and write.

Ideas

German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) publishes "The World as Will and Idea."

Van Buren, Hannah

Hannah Hoes Van Buren (1783-1819) dies of tuberculosis on February 5, eighteen years before her husband, Martin Van Buren, becomes President of the U.S.

Tyler, Letitia

John Tyler Jr. (1819-1896), son of John and Letitia Tyler, is born April 27.

Taylor, Margaret

Margaret Smith Taylor (1819-1820), daughter of Zachary and Margaret Taylor, is born July 27.

Fillmore, Abigail

Abigail Powers (1798-1853) meets Millard Fillmore (1800-1874) at the Academy in New Hope, New York.

Economics

Transportation: The very first ship to use steam as support on an Atlantic crossing was the American sailing ship Savannah who had been equipped with auxiliary steam engines geared to two paddle wheels on the ship’s sides. Because of distrust in this new mode of transportation, the vessel does not carry either passengers or cargo.

Economics

The Bank for Savings in New York City opens as one of the first U.S. savings banks.

Economics

The first commercially produced eating chocolate is produced in Switzerland.

Discovery

An expedition to the Rocky Mountains is led by explorer Stephen Long (1784-1864).

Religion

With roots in the Protestant Reformation and liberal New England Congregationalism, Unitarianism is founded in Boston by William Ellering Channing (1780-1842).

Social Issues

Slavery: Canada denies the American government the right to pursue runaway slaves within its borders.

Social Issues

Immigration: Congress establishes reporting on immigration.

Reform

Labor Movement: Children under the age of 9 are forbidden to work in mills in England; other young workers are limited to 12-hour days.

Politics

First Political Parties: James Monroe (1758-1831) is re-elected to a second term as President of the U.S. on the Democratic-Republican ticket, defeating John Quincy Adams; John C. Calhoun (1782-1850) is elected the nation's 7th Vice President.

Government

Slavery: Congress passes the Missouri Compromise, admitting Maine into the Union as a free state and Missouri as a slave state; slavery becomes excluded from the Union north of the Mason-Dixon Line.

Government

The Public Land Act lowers the cost of western lands to $1.25 an acre, in the hope of encouraging settlement of the West.

Government

New State: Maine becomes the 23rd state to join the Union.

Science

Andre Marie Ampere (1775-1836), French physicist, discovers the basic processes of electric currents.

Medicine

The New York Eye Infirmary is founded.

Inventions

An improved plow and cultivator is invented by Henry Burden (1791-1871) of New York.

Education

Massachusetts physician John Gorham (1783-1829) publishes a 2-volume textbook, "Elements of Chemical Science," which is the standard for years.

Education

Public Education: First public high school in the U.S., Boston English, opens.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: John Keats (1795-1821) writes "Ode on a Grecian Urn" and "Ode to a Nightingale."

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Percy Bysshe Shelly (1792-1827) writes "Prometheus Unbound."

Arts and Letters

Literature: Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832) publishes "Ivanhoe."

Ideas

Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) writes "Principles of Political Economy."

Monroe, Elizabeth

White House Wedding: Elizabeth Monroe (1768-1830) is the first First Lady to have a daughter (Maria Hester Monroe) married in the White House.

Tyler, Julia

Julia Gardiner (1820-1889), second wife of John Tyler (1790–1862), is born on Gardiner’s Island in New York. She is the third of ten First Ladies born in New York, the "mother state" of presidential wives.

Taylor, Margaret

Octavia Pannel Taylor (1816-1820), daughter of Zachary and Margaret Taylor, dies July 8 of malaria.

Taylor, Margaret

Margaret Smith Taylor (1819-1820), daughter of Zachary and Margaret Taylor, dies October 22 from malaria three months after the death of her sister.

Fillmore, Abigail

While teaching in New Hope, Abigail Fillmore (1798-1853) begins a campaign to raise funds for the first circulating library in New York.

Economics

The percentage of people working in agriculture begins to decline as family farms are gobbled up by larger agricultural businesses. At the same time, cities grow tremendously, fueled by new manufacturing industries.

Economics

A canning factory is opened in Boston by William Underwood.

Discovery

Nathanial Palmer becomes the first person to actually see the land mass of Antartica.

Discovery

Platinum is discovered in the Russian Ural Mountains.

Discovery

The statue of the Venus de Milo (c. 150 B.C.) is discovered in Melos.

Discovery

Major Stephen Long (1784-1864) leads an expedition from Pittsburgh, exploring the area between the Missouri River and the Rocky Mountains.

Popular Culture

The short story as a literary form is introduced by Washington Irving (1783-1859) with the publication of "The Sketch Book," which includes “Rip Van Winkle” and “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow.”

Religion

The Jesuits are driven out of Rome.

Religion

The music for the hymn “Silent Night, Holy Night,” is composed by Franz Xaver Huber to words written by the young curate, Joseph Mohr.

Social Issues

Slavery: 86 Blacks set sail for the British colony of Sierra Leone on the ship Mayflower of Liberia.

Social Issues

Slavery: In Charleston, South Carolina, slaves are required to wear distinctive identification tags. This law is later extended to free blacks in the city as well.

Government

Mexico declares independence from Spain. Santa Fe Trail opened to international trade.

Government

New State: Missouri becomes the 24th state to join the Union (as a slave state).

Government

James Monroe (1758-1831) is inaugurated to a second term as President of the U.S. and John C. Calhoun (1782-1850) is inaugurated as the nation's 7th Vice President.

Inventions

The electric motor is invented by Michael Faraday (1791-1867).

Technology

Sound reproduction is demonstrated by Sir Charles Wheatstone (1802-1875).

Education

Education of Women: The Troy Female Seminary is founded by Emma Hart Willard (1787-1870).

Education

Native American Education: A Cherokee named Sequoyah (c.1770-1843) develops an alphabet of 86 characters, with which stories, hymns, and a Bible were printed in the Cherokee language.

Education

Education of Women: Dorothea Dix (1802-1887) opens a dame school for young girls in Boston.

Education

Children’s Books: Early Piety, or Memoirs of Childhood mixes stories such as "Of a very good girl; that died very happy before she was seven years old, with others like "the history of a sad wicked child, and his miserable death."

Arts and Letters

Frances Wright (1795-1852) publishes "Views of Society and Manners in America."

Tyler, Letitia

Letitia (Letty) Tyler Semple (1821-1907), daughter of John and Letitia Tyler, is born on May 11.

Economics

Population: The fourth census (1820) shows that the population of the U.S. is about 9.6 million.

Daily Life

Transportation: The first wagon train on the Santa Fe Trail is led by William Becknell (1788-1865).

Daily Life

The game of poker is invented by sailors in New Orleans.

Popular Culture

James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851) publishes "The Spy," which leads him to become the first popular American novelist.

Religion

The first Catholic cathedral to be dedicated in the U.S. is the Cathedral of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Baltimore.

Reform

Abolition Movement: Benjamin Lundy (1789-1839), Quaker saddle maker, begins publishing his anti-slavery newspaper, Genius of Universal Emancipation.

Reform

Black Suffrage Movement: Nearly all property qualifications required to vote are abolished by the New York state constitution, but the state continues to deny suffrage to Blacks.

Government

Presidents: Ulysses S. Grant (1822-1885), 18th President of the U.S., is born April 27 in Point Pleasant, Ohio.

Government

Presidents: Rutherford B. Hayes (1822-1881), 19th President of the U.S., is born October 4 in Delaware, Ohio.

Government

Florida is organized as a territory.

Science

A theory of evolution, subsequently proved to be in error, is published by Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829).

Medicine

Observations of human gastric juices are begun by U.S. Army physician William Beaumont (1785-1853). His observations are made on a sailor who suffered a bullet wound in the stomach that did not quite heal.

Inventions

The first patent for making false teeth is obtained by W.C. Graham.

Technology

Gas lights are installed on the streets of Boston.

Education

Higher Education: Hobart College is founded in Geneva, NY; it offers an “English Course” designed for “the practical business of life.”

Arts and Letters

Franz Liszt (1811-1886), Hungarian pianist, makes his debut at age 11.

Arts and Letters

The Royal Academy of Music in founded in London.

Arts and Letters

The diorama, paintings illuminated in a dark room to give the illusion of reality, is invented by Daguerre and Bouton.

Economics

Cotton mills in Massachusetts begin using water-powered machinery.

Discovery

The Rosetta stone, found in 1799, is deciphered by French Egyptologist Jean Francois Champollion (1790-1832).

Daily Life

Molly Pitcher, a.k.a. Mary McCauley (1754-1832), is awarded a pension by the state of Pennsylvania.

Sports

Soccer: Yale prohibits the playing of football (soccer); violators are fined.

Social Issues

Slavery: An informer reveals a plot led by Denmark Vesey (1767-1822), a free black man, for a massive slave uprising in South Carolina. Thirty-five blacks, including Vessey, are hanged, and severely repressive slave codes are passed in the South.

Reform

Slavery: Liberia is founded as a colony for blacks fleeing America.

Reform

Protest Music: “The Ballad of Major Andre” is written during the American Revolution by Major John Andre (? -1780).

Politics

Daniel Webster (1782-1852) takes a seat in the House of Representatives, and Henry Clay (1777-1852) becomes Speaker of the House.

Government

James Monroe (1758-1831) presents his Monroe Doctrine, stating that any attempts by Europeans to interfere in the Americas will be considered an affront to the national interest of the U.S.

War

Indian Wars: American troops defeat the Sauk and Fox chief Black Hawk, who has tried to prevent white settlement in the Illinois territory.

Medicine

The first ophthalmology book in the U.S., "A Treatise on the Diseases of the Eye," is published.

Medicine

The British medical journal, "The Lancet," is first published.

Inventions

Computers: Early attempts to build a calculating machine (computer) are made by Charles Babbage (1791-1871).

Inventions

A waterproof fabric is invented by Charles Macintosh (1766-1843).

Education

Education of Women: Catherine Beecher (1800-1878) founds a girls’ school in Hartford, CT.

Education

Teacher Education: The first private normal school (for training teachers) in the U.S. opens in Concord, Vermont.

Education

The first gymnasium offering systematic instruction is started by the Round Hill School in Massachusetts. Gymnastics is scheduled from 5 to 7 p.m.

Education

Children''s Books: Clement Clark Moore (1779-1863) publishes "A Visit from St. Nicholas" ("‘Twas the Night Before Christmas").

Education

African American Education: Alexander Lucius Twilight (1795-1857) graduates from Middlebury College, making him the first black college graduate in the U.S.

Arts and Letters

Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1857) completes the "Missa Solemnis, Op. 123."

Tyler, Letitia

Elizabeth "Lizzie" Tyler Waller (1823-1850), daughter of John and Letitia Tyler, is born July 11.

Sports

Football: Football is invented by a 17-year-old British rugby player when, against the rules of rugby, he takes up the ball and runs with it.

Sports

Horse Racing: The first great U.S. horse race takes place between the North and the South on Long Island; the purse is about $20,000.

Popular Culture

James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851) publishes "The Pioneers," the first of the Leatherstocking Tales.

Reform

Abolition Movement: An Anti-Slavery Society is founded in England by William Wilberforce (1759-1833).

Politics

The world’s first public opinion poll tries to predict voting intentions for the presidential election of 1824.

Politics

John Quincy Adams (1767-1848) is elected as the 6th President of the U.S. by the House of Representatives when none of the four candidates achieves a majority in the national election; John C. Calhoun (1782-1850) is re-elected as Vice President.

Government

The Tariff Act of 1824 is passed by Congress in an effort to protect American industry.

Government

National Capital: The Capitol Rotunda is completed; it is the connecting space between the House of Representatives and the Senate sides of the building.

Government

Native Americans: The U.S. Secretary of War establishes the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), which does not receive congressional authorization until 1934.

Science

French physicist Nicholas Leonard Sadi Carnot (1796-1832) first states the principle that will become William Thompson’s (1824-1907) Second Law of Thermodynamics (energy moves from a warm to a cold body, not the reverse).

Education

Mary Randolph (1762-1828) publishes "The Virginia Housewife," intended to instruct novice wives.

Education

Children''s Books: Dorothea Dix (1802-1887) writes a children’s book, "Conversations on Common Things."

Education

Emma Willard (1787-1870) writes a widely-used textbook, "Ancient Geography."

Education

The first science and engineering school in the U.S. is founded; it is later named Renssalaer Polytechnic Institute.

Arts and Letters

The National Gallery is London is founded.

Taylor, Margaret

Mary Elizabeth Taylor Bliss Dandridge (1824-1909), daughter of Zachary and Margaret Taylor, is born April 20.

Lincoln, Mary

Mary Todd’s (1818-1882) mother dies in childbirth when she is six years old.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: Construction begins on the 1st locomotive workshop in New Castle, England.

Discovery

A gateway to the west through the Rocky Mountains is discovered at South Pass, WY.

Discovery

The Great Salt Lake is discovered.

Religion

The Sunday School Union is founded in the United States.

Reform

Utopian Movement: Robert Owen (1771-1858) founds New Harmony, a utopian community in Indiana.

Reform

Labor Movement: The first recorded strike by women is a weaver’s strike at Pawtucket, RI.

Government

The U.S. signs a treaty with Russia setting the border between Canada and Alaska.

Government

Native Americans: Congress adopts a policy of removal of eastern Indian tribes to territory west of the Mississippi River; whites settle on Indian lands.

Government

John Quincy Adams (1767-1848) is inaugurated as the 6th President of the U.S. and John C. Calhoun (1782-1850) is inaugurated as the continuing Vice President.

Government

Native Americans: A treaty is established between the U.S. and the Oglala branch of the Teton Sioux (Lakota) regarding fur trade, signed for the Oglala by Standing Buffalo (aka Standing Bull).

Science

Michael Faraday (1791-1867) succeeds in isolating benzene.

Science

Georges Couvier (1769-1832) suggests that alterations in the earth causing extinction of whole animal species are associated with great natural catastrophes.

Technology

Railroad History: Stephenson's (1781-1841) 8-ton LOCOMOTION No. 1 built for the Stockton & Darlington Railroad is capable of pulling 90 tons of coal at 15 mph.

Arts and Letters

"The Diary of Samuel Pepys" is published.

Arts and Letters

Dance: The Bolshoi Ballet is established in Moscow.

Ideas

English philosopher John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) publishes "Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind," an early work in psychology, at age 19.

Adams, Louisa

Louisa Adams (1775-1852) moves into the White House with her husband, John Quincy Adams.

Adams, Louisa

Louisa Adams (1775-1852) becomes the first First Lady to write her autobiography, which she called "Adventures of a Nobody."

Tyler, Letitia

Anne Contesse Tyler (1825), daughter of John and Letitia Tyler, is born in April and dies three months later in July.

Lincoln, Mary

Mary Todd’s (1818-1882) father remarries—Elizabeth (Betsy) Humphreys of Frankfort, KY.

Economics

The Erie Canal, connecting Lake Eire and the Hudson River, opens.

Economics

The New York Stock Exchange opens, trading mostly canal, turnpike, mining, and gas lighting companies.

Discovery

Alexander Gordon Laing (1793-1826) is the first explorer to reach Timbuktu (in what is now Mali).

Daily Life

Tea roses from China are introduced in Europe.

Daily Life

Duncan Phyfe (1768-1854) begins producing furniture in the Empire style.

Sports

Baseball: A Baseball Club is organized in Rochester, New York.

Sports

Horse Racing: The New York Trotting Club builds a race course on Long Island.

Social Issues

Native Americans: The Chippewa, Iowa, Potawami, Sauk and Fox, Sioux, and Winnebago tribes sign a treaty for territorial boundaries.

Social Issues

Native Americans: Creek Indians reject a treaty ceding all their lands in Georgia to the U.S.

Reform

Labor Movement: In Boston, 600 master carpenters strike for a 10-hour day.

Reform

Utopian Movement: A community of slaves is organized by Frances Wright (1795-1852), designed to help them get ready for freedom.

Politics

Third Parties: The first third party in the U.S., the Anti-Masonic Party, is founded.

Science

André Ampere (1775-1836) publishes his "Treatise on Electrodynamics."

Inventions

The first permanent photograph is produced by J.N. Niepce (1765-1833), a French scientist.

Inventions

Samuel Morey (1762-1843) patents an internal combustion engine.

Inventions

The first reflecting telescope is built in the U.S. by Amasa Holcomb (1787-1875) in Massachusetts.

Inventions

Bassell designs a pendulum that takes exactly one second per swing.

Education

The American Lyceum—a mechanism for adult education—is founded.

Education

The Smithsonian Institution is founded in Washington, DC, endowed by James Smithson (1765-1829).

Education

Education of Women: The first public high schools for girls open in New York and Boston.

Arts and Letters

The U.S. Academy of Design is founded by Samuel F.B. Morse (1791-1872).

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1806-1861) publishes "Essays on Mind, with Other Poems."

Adams, Abigail

John Adams (1735-1826), 2nd President of the U.S., dies in Braintree (now Quincy), MA.

Jefferson, Martha

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) dies on July 4 at Monticello (near Charlottsville, VA).

Harrison, Anna

Lucy Singleton Harrison Este (1800-1826), daughter of William Henry and Anna Harrison, dies April 7.

Taylor, Margaret

Richard Taylor (1826-1879), son of Zachary and Margaret Taylor, is born January 27.

Fillmore, Abigail

Abigail Powers (1798-1853) marries Millard Fillmore (1800-1874) on Feb. 5 in Moravia, NY.

Lincoln, Mary

Mary Todd (1818-1882) enters the academy of Dr. John Ward; stays until she is 14.

Grant, Julia

Julia Boggs Dent (1826-1902), future wife of President Ulysses S. Grant(1822–1885), is born on January 26 on her family’s plantation near St. Louis, Missouri.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: The first line of rails in the New England States is said to have been laid down at Quincy, Mass., 3 miles in length and pulled by horses.

Discovery

The first overland journey to Southern California is led by Jedediah Strong Smith (1798-1831).

Daily Life

Newspapers: The first issue of the "United States Telegraph" is published; it reflects an anti-John Quincy Adams (1767-1848) bias.

Popular Culture

James Fennimore Cooper (1789-1851) publishes "The Last of the Mohicans."

Social Issues

Native Americans: The Creek Indians sign the Treaty of Washington, which voids the previous treaty and cedes less land to the government; it requires the Indians to move in 1827.

Social Issues

Slavery: A Pennsylvania law makes kidnapping a felony, thereby nullifying the Fugitive Slave Act of 1793.

Reform

Temperence Movement: The American Society for the Promotion of Temperance is founded in Boston.

Politics

Sectional differences in the U.S. between the North and South increase over tariffs: northern industrialists are for them; southern plantation owners oppose them.

Government

Joint occupation of the Oregon territory is agreed upon by the U.S. and Britain.

War

Congress gives the President the right to call out the militia.

Science

The mammalian ovum (egg) is discovered, proving that mammals do develop from eggs.

Science

John J. Audubon (1785-1851) publishes "Birds of North America."

Medicine

Brights’ disease (of the kidneys) is described by English physician Richard Bright (1789-1858).

Inventions

The screw propeller for ships is invented.

Education

Joanne Bethune founds the Infant School Society in New York City.

Education

African American Education: A letter in the Freedom Journal demands education for black women.

Education

The first nautical school in America is opened in Nantucket, Massachusetts.

Education

Public Education: Massachusetts requires every town with 500 or more families to establish a public high school.

Education

Public Education: Massachusetts passes a law making all grades of public school open to all pupils free of charge.

Arts and Letters

"A Midsummer Night’s Dream," by Felix Mendelssohn (1809-1847), premieres.

Economics

Transportation: The first public transit system—horse-drawn busses—appear in New York City.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad is chartered to run from Baltimore to the Ohio River in Virginia. It was the first westward bound railroad in America.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: The Switch Back Gravity Railroad in Pennsylvania begins operation in May of 1827 before work begins on the B&O. It is the second railroad in the U.S.

Daily Life

Karl Baedeker (1801-1859) begins publishing his travel guides.

Daily Life

John Walker (1781-1859) introduces sulfur friction matches—called Lucifers—in England.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The first newspaper for blacks in the U.S., "Freedom’s Journal" is published in New York City.

Daily Life

Cincinnati is considered the Queen City of the west, at least for a time before the rise of Chicago.

Daily Life

Holidays: The Mardi Gras celebration begins when French-American students organize a procession of street maskers on Shrove Tuesday in New Orleans.

Sports

A handbook for sportsmen, the American Shooter’s Manual, is published in Philadelphia.

Popular Culture

The murder of Maria Martin in England is the inspiration for a wildly popular melodrams, Maria Martin, or The Murder in the Red Barn.

Religion

The Second Great Awakening, an era of intense, emotional religious revivalism, makes a large impression across the country.

Reform

Perhaps the first organized American women’s club, the Women’s Social Society at New Harmony, is founded by Frances Wright.

Politics

First Political Parties: The Democratic party is formed, based on Jeffersonian principles. Andrew Jackson (1767-1845) is the first nominee, and defeats John Quincy Adams (1767-1848) for the Presidency; John C. Calhoun (1782-1850) is re-elected Vice President.

Politics

Third Parties: The Working Men’s Party is founded in New York City.

Government

Railroad History: Congress authorizes the construction of the first state-owned railway in Pennsylvania.

Government

The so-called Tariff of Abominations, imposing duties on manufactured goods is passed.

Science

The discipline of organic chemistry begins.

Science

Caroline Herschel (1750-1848) is awarded a gold medal by Britain’s Royal Astronomical Society for her catalog of nebulae.

Medicine

Dr. Hopff first uses the term "hemophilia" in describing the blood disease.

Inventions

The electromagnet is invented.

Education

Education of Women: Zilpah Grant (1794-1874) becomes head of the Ipswitch Female Seminary, a select girls’ boarding school.

Education

Noah Webster (1758-1843) publishes his "American Dictionary of the English Language," with 70,000 definitions, including many words derived from immigrant and Native American languages.

Education

Libraries: The Reading Room Society, the first social library for African Americans, opens in Philadelphia.

Arts and Letters

Franz Schubert (1797-1828) gives his only public concert in Vienna.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Alexander Dumas (pere--1802-1870) writes "The Three Musketeers."

Adams, Louisa

White House Weddings: Louisa (1775-1852) and John Quincy Adams (1767-1848) son, John II (1803-1834), marries Mary Catherine Hellen in the White House.

Jackson, Rachel

Rachel Donelson Robards Jackson (1767-1828) dies at home on December 22 at 62. She is the first President's wife to die after her husband had been elected to office of President but before he was sworn in and she could become the First Lady.

Fillmore, Abigail

Millard Fillmore (1800--1874) is elected to the New York State Legislature, where he serves until 1831.

Fillmore, Abigail

Millard Powers Fillmore (1828-1889), son of Millard and Abigail Fillmore, is born April 25.

Johnson, Eliza

Martha Johnson Patterson (1828-1901), daughter of Andrew and Eliza Johnson, is born October 25.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: Delaware & Hudson Canal Co. builds a railroad from their mines to the termination of the canal at Honesdale.

Economics

Construction starts on the Baltimore and Ohio railroad.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The first Indian newspaper, the Cherokee Phoenix is published in Georgia.

Daily Life

Magazines: Sarah Josepha Hale (1788-1879) becomes editor-publisher of the American Ladies Magazine (until 1836).

Sports

The first archery club is formed in Philadelphia; members pay an initiation fee of $5.00 and $.50 dues a month.

Popular Culture

Thomas (“Jim Crow”) Rice (1808-1860) introduces the song “Jim Crow” between acts of a play; it is the first international song hit of American popular music.

Social Issues

Native Americans: American social critic Elizabeth Sanders (1762-1851) anonymously publishes a booklet praising Indian culture and condemning its destruction by General Andrew Jackson.

Reform

Abolition Movement: Isabella van Wagener (c. 1797-1883) is freed from slavery and takes the name Sojourner Truth; she preaches against slavery throughout New York and New England.

Politics

The practice of awarding political appointments based on party service is introduced by Andrew Jackson (1767-1845).

Government

Andrew Jackson (1767-1848) is inaugurated as the 7th President of the U.S. and John C. Calhoun (1782-1850) is inaugurated as the continuing Vice President.

Inventions

Louis Daguerre (1787-1851) invents the daguerreotype, a commonly used form of photography.

Inventions

The concertina is patented by Sir Charles Wheatstone (1802-1875).

Inventions

An early version of the typewriter is patented by William Austin Burt (1792-1858).

Technology

The term “technology” is coined in a work called "Elements of Technology" by Harvard professor Jacob Bigelow., M.D. (1787-1879).

Education

Special Education: The Perkins Institution, the first school for the blind in the U.S. opens.

Education

The first American encyclopedia, Encyclopedia Americana ins published.

Education

Special Education: Louis Braille (1809-1852) adapts a communication system used by the French military.

Education

Children’s Books: Ann Taylor (1782-1866) and her sister Jane (1783-1824) collaborated on several books of poems for "infant minds," chiefly but not exclusively religious poems. Ann (1782-1866) was author of "My Mother" and Jane (1783-1824) of "Twinkle, twinkle, little star." They wrote "Original Poems for Infant Minds," illustrated with woodcuts.

Arts and Letters

Opera: Rossini (1792-1868) completes his last major work, the opera, "William Tell."

Arts and Letters

Frederic Chopin (1810-1849) debuts in Vienna.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Edgar Allen Poe (1809-1849) publishes his first work, "Tamerlane and Other Poems."

Adams, Louisa

George Washington Adams (1801-1829), son of President John Quincy Adams and Louisa Adams, dies a mysterious death on April 30. Many historians believe he committed suicide.

Economics

The first modern hotel, the Tremont, opens in Boston with 170 rooms.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: The first steam locomotive used in America, the English-built Stourbridge Lion, is put to work on the Delaware & Hudson.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: Peter Cooper (1791-1883) of New York in 6 weeks time builds the Tom Thumb, a vertical boiler 1.4 HP locomotive, for the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad.

Daily Life

Second Great Awakening: In part stimulated by the Second Great Awakening, crusader Sylvester Graham attacks meats, fats, catsup, mustard, pepper, and white bread as stimulating carnal appetites.

Religion

The Catholic Emancipation Act in Britain allows Catholics to hold public office.

Reform

Abolition Movement: Sarah Moore Grimké (1792-1873) publishes Epistle to the Clergy of the Southern States, in which she attacks religious rationalizations of slavery.

Government

Native Americans: The Indian Removal Act is passed enabling whites to move Indians to reservations.

Government

Abortion: U.S. Congress makes abortion a statutory crime.

Government

Mexico bans further U.S. settlement in Texas.

Government

Presidents: Chester A. Arthur (1830-1886), 21st President of the U.S., is born October 5 in Fairfield, Vermont.

Science

The cell nucleus in plants is discovered.

Science

Charles Lyell (1797-1875) organizes the geological system into three groups: eocene, miocene, and pliocene.

Medicine

America’s first veterinarian, Charles Grice, opens an animal hospital in New York City.

Inventions

Frenchman, B. Thimonnier (1793-1859), invents a sewing machine.

Inventions

The fountain pen is patented by H.D. Hyde of Pennsylvania.

Education

African American Education: By this time, most southern states have laws forbidding teaching people in slavery to read. Even so, around 5 percent become literate at great personal risk.

Arts and Letters

Hector Berlioz (1803-1869) writes his "Symphonie fantastique."

Monroe, Elizabeth

Elizabeth Kortright Monroe (1768-1830), wife of James Monroe, in office 1817-1825, dies at the family home, Oak Hill, in Virginia.

Harrison, Anna

John Cleves Symmes Harrison (1798-1830), son of William Henry and Anna Harrison, dies October 30 in the midst of political controversy.

Tyler, Letitia

Tazewell Tyler (1830-1874), the youngest of John and Letitia Tyler's children, is born December 6.

Fillmore, Abigail

The Fillmore family moves to Buffalo; both parents are active in efforts to improve public education and establish a public library system there.

Lane, Harriet

Harriet Lane (1830-1903), niece of President James Buchanan (1791–1868), is born on May 9 in Franklin County, Pennsylvania. Since he remained a bachelor, Harriet Lane served as his First Lady during his time in office.

Johnson, Eliza

Charles Johnson (1830-1863), son of Andrew and Eliza Johnson, is born February 19.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: The Best Friend is built at the West Point Foundery at New York for the Charlston & Hamburg Railroad. It was the first completely American-built steam engine to go into scheduled passenger service.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: The first locomotive built in the U.S. makes its first trip on the Baltimore and Ohio railroad; it later loses a race against a horse when an engine belt slips. 0 1210 1830 12 Population: The fifth national census puts the population at 12.8 million, including about 150,000 immigrants. 0 8066 1830 12 Transportation: Railroad History: The Best Friend is built at the West Point Foundery at New York for the Charlston & Hamburg Railroad. It was the first complete

Economics

Population: The fifth national census puts the population at 12.8 million, including about 150,000 immigrants.

Daily Life

Fashion: Ladies' skirts grow shorter and sleeves and hats grow bigger; stiff collars become part of men’s dress.

Daily Life

Sylvester Graham invents the graham cracker, which becomes a favorite of children everywhere.

Daily Life

Magazines: "Godey's Lady's Book," a magazine for women, is founded.

Popular Culture

Oliver Wendell Holmes (1809-1894) writes the poem, “Old Ironsides,” which so popularizes the story of the U.S.S. Constitution that plans to scrap the ship are cancelled.

Religion

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, or Mormons, is founded by Joseph Smith (1805-1844).

Politics

Former President John Quincy Adams (1767-1848) is elected as the Congressional representative from Massachusetts.

Government

Presidents: James A. Garfield (1831-1881), 20th President of the U.S. is born November 19 in Orange, Ohio.

Government

U.S. copyright law is amended to last for 28 years, renewable for 14.

War

The French Foreign Legion is founded.

Science

Charles Darwin (1809-1882) sails on the H.M.S. Beagle, a trip on which he conceives the idea of evolution.

Science

Michael Farraday (1791-1867) develops the electromagnetic generator.

Inventions

Chloroform is invented.

Inventions

An early version of the mechanical reaper is developed by Cyrus McCormick (1809-1884).

Technology

Airplanes: Thomas Walker (1804-1886) proposes a tandem-wing airoplane with the pilot and the propulsion system amidships. This would later influence Samuel Langley as he designed his aerodromes.

Education

Libraries: The Female Literary Society, the first social library for African-American women, is founded in Philadelphia.

Education

African American Education: Maria W. Miller Stewart (1803-1879), an African American orator, exhorts African Americans to become educated and fight for their rights; she speaks out at a time when very few women are able to speak in public.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Victor Hugo (1802-1885) publishes "The Hunchback of Notre Dame."

Monroe, Elizabeth

James Monroe, fifth President of the U.S. dies in New York, New York (b. 1758).

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy Ware Webb (1831-1889), future wife of Rutherford B. Hayes (1822–1893), is born August 28 in Chillicothe, Ohio.

Economics

The Industrial Revolution focuses on textile mills.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: Robert L. Stevens buys the British locomotive, the John Bull, and establishes America’s first steam railway.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: The 3.5 ton De Witt Clinton hauls 5 stage coach bodies on railroad wheels at 25 mph on the Mohawk & Hudson Railroad between Albany and Schenectady.

Economics

Transportation: The Canadian paddle steamer, Royal William, cross the Atlantic with steam as the prime source of drift. However, her engines had to be stopped every few days because they had to be scraped from the accumulated salt deposits from the seawater used in her boilers.

Discovery

Scottish explorer James Ross (1800-1862) and his Uncle, Sir John Ross (1777-1856), determine the position of the magnetic North Pole.

Daily Life

This year sees the first use of the term “Old Glory” for the U.S. flag.

Sports

Horse Racing: A popular racing sheet, the "Spirit of the Times," is established by William Trotter; its aim is to improve the reputation of racing and other sports.

Popular Culture

American Theatre: The first showboat is built, called "The Floating Theatre."

Popular Culture

Samuel Francis Smith (1808-1895) writes the words to "My Country, 'Tis of Thee."

Social Issues

Immigration: German immigration to the U.S. is about 15,000.

Social Issues

Slavery: Nat Turner (1800-1831) leads an unsuccessful slave uprising.

Social Issues

Slavery: The term "underground railroad" becomes widely used.

Reform

Abolition Movement: William Lloyd Garrison (1805-1879) begins publishing his abolitionist periodical, The Liberator.

Politics

Andrew Jackson (1767-1845) is re-elected President and Martin Van Buren (1782-1862) is elected the 8th Vice President on the new Democratic Party ticket.

Politics

Third Parties: For the first time in American history, a third party challenges the major two parties. William Wirt (1772–1834) of the Anti-Masonic Party carries 8 percent of the vote and one state. Andrew Jackson (1767–1845), Democratic-Republican, is reelected President over National-Republican Henry Clay (1777–1852).

Government

John C. Calhoun (1782-1850) becomes the first Vice President to resign from office; he runs successfully for the Senate.

Government

States in the South begin a series of nullification acts, attempting to redefine their relationship to the federal government.

War

Indian Wars: U.S. troops fight the last Indian war north of the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi.

Science

Jane Kilby Welsh publishes her textbook, "Familiar Lessons in Mineralogy and Geology."

Medicine

The dissection of cadavers in medical schools is legalized in Massachusetts.

Medicine

Epidemics: A cholera epidemic sweeps through major American cities, killing over 7,000 people in New York and New Orleans.

Medicine

The disease later known as Hodgkin’s disease is described by English physician Thomas Hodgkin (1798-1866).

Inventions

The lawn mower is invented.

Inventions

Walter Hunt (1796-1859) invents a lock-stitch sewing machine.

Inventions

Louis Braille (1809-1852) invents the stereoscope.

Inventions

Cyrus McCormick invents the first commercially successful reaper.

Education

Education of Women: Catherine Beecher (1800-1878) founds the Western Female Institute in Cincinnati.

Education

Special Education: Samuel Howe (1801-1876) founds the Perkins Institute, the first major school for the blind in the U.S.

Arts and Letters

The Boston Academy of Music offers free music lessons to children, adults, and teachers.

Arts and Letters

Drama: Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832) finishes "Faust."

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Alfred Lord Tennyson (1809-1892) publishes "The Lady of Shalott."

Adams, Abigail

Thomas Boylston Adams, third son of John and Abigail Adams, dies at 59, probably of complications of alcoholism.

Fillmore, Abigail

A daughter, Mary Abigail (1832-1854), is born to Abigail and Millard Fillmore in Buffalo on March 27.

Lincoln, Mary

Mary Todd (1818-1882) is enrolled at Madame Victorie Mentelle’s select school for young ladies.

Johnson, Eliza

Mary Johnson Stover Brown (1832-1883), daughter of Andrew and Eliza Johnson, is born May 8.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy Webb's (1831-1889) father dies of cholera.

Garfield, Lucretia

Lucretia Rudolph (1832-1918), future wife of President James A. Garfield (1831–1881), is born on April 19 in Hiram, Ohio.

Harrison, Caroline

Caroline Lavinia Scott (1832-1892), future wife of President Benjamin Harrison (1833–1901), is born On October 1 in Oxford, Ohio.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: "The Brother Jonathon" was the first locomotive in the world to have a four-wheel leading truck; it was designed by John B. Jervis for the Mohawk & Hudson Railroad.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: "The American No. 1" was the first 4-4-0, the first of its class; it was designed by John B. Jervis (1795 –1885), Chief Engineer for the Mohawk & Hudson.

Economics

Transportation: The "Ann McKim," first of the American clipper ships, is launched in Baltimore.

Daily Life

Frances Trollope (1780-1863) publishes "Domestic Manners of the Americans."

Reform

The first work to treat women in a completely distinctive way, "The History of Women," is published.

Reform

Abolition Movement: The New England Anti-Slavery Society is founded in Boston.

Reform

Abolition Movement: African American women found the first Anti-Slavery society in Salem, Massachusetts.

Government

Congress gives President Jackson (1767-1845) the power to use the armed forces to enforce the tariff laws; South Carolina rescinds its nullification acts after a compromise on tariffs is reached.

Government

President: Benjamin Harrison (1831-1901), 23rd President of the U.S., is born.

Government

National Capital: The Treasury building burns to the ground in Washington, DC.

Government

Andrew Jackson (1767-1845) is inaugurated as President and Martin Van Buren (1782-1862) is inaugurated as the nation's 8th Vice President.

Science

Michael Farraday (1791-1867) coins the terms electrolysis, electrolyte, anode, and cathode.

Inventions

Computers: Charles Babbage (1791-1871) suggests the possibility of building an “analytical engine,” an early calculator.

Education

Education of Women: Prudence Crandall (1803-1890) admits black students to her girls’ school in Connecticut and is imprisoned for violating a law passed especially to prevent her from doing so.

Education

Higher Education; Education of Women: African American Education: Oberlin College in Ohio is the first college to admit Blacks and women.

Education

Libraries: The first tax-supported public library in the United States is founded in Peterborough, New Hampshire.

Education

Children’s Books: Peter Parley's "Winter Evening Tales;" this delightful little book with its copperplate title page and frontispiece shows a less forbidding side of S. G. Goodrich (1793-1860).

Arts and Letters

Frederic Chopin (1810-1849) writes the "Piano Concerto in E Minor."

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Alfred, Lord Tennyson (1809-1892) writes "In Memoriam."

Daily Life

Transportation: The Canadian ship, S.S. Royal William crosses the Atlantic in 25 days.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The first "penny press," the "New York Sun," makes newspapers widely available, thus helping the spread of literacy.

Daily Life

Magazines: The first magazine for mothers, "Mother’s Magazine," is published and edited by Abigail Goodrich Whittelsey (1788-1858).

Daily Life

Magazines: Parley's Magazine for Children & Youth. This is a twice-monthly magazine, founded by Samuel Griswold Goodrich (1793-1860). It emphasized geography, travel, natural history, and simple technology, along with Bible stories.

Sports

Baseball: An early form of baseball is played by the Olympic Ball Club in Philadelphia; most rules are like those of English cricket.

Popular Culture

The legend of Davy Crockett (1786-1836) is begun with the publication of "Sketches and Eccentricities of Col. David Crockett, of West Tennessee."

Social Issues

Slavery: The British Empire abolishes slavery in its colonies.

Reform

Abolition Movement: The American Anti-Slavery Society is founded in Philadelphia by James Mott (1788-1868). Lucretia Mott (1793-1880), his wife, founds the Female Anti-Slavery Society.

Reform

Labor Movement: Shoemakers in Geneva, New York, go on strike; they win, but a later court case declares strikes to be illegal.

Reform

Labor Movement: The General Trades Union is formed in New York City.

Politics

Third Parties: Anti-Jackson forces form the American Whig party; it lasts until 1852.

Government

Andrew Jackson (1767-1845) removes federal deposits from the Bank of the U.S. and deposits them in “pet” state banks around the country.

Government

The U.S. Senate censures Andrew Jackson (1767-1845) for taking federal deposits from the Bank of the U.S.; the censure is removed from the record the following year.

Government

The city of Toronto is incorporated.

Science

Amalgam (a mercury alloy) is introduced as a filling material for decayed teeth.

Medicine

An antidote for arsenic poisoning is discovered by Robert Bunsen (1811-1899).

Inventions

The mechanical reaper is patented by Cyrus H. McCormick (1809-1884).

Inventions

Computers: Charles Babbage (1791-1871)invents the principle of the "analytical engine," which is the forerunner of the computer.

Inventions

Jacob Perkins (1766-1849) invents an early refrigerator (really an early ice machine).

Education

Special Education: French teacher Louis Braille invents (1809-1852) a system of printed raised dots that enables the blind to read.

Education

Children''s Books: The fairy tale "The Three Bears" is popularized.

Arts and Letters

"The Last Days of Pompeii is published."

Lincoln, Mary

Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) enters politics in the Illinois legislature at the age of 25.

Adams, Louisa

John Adams II (1803-1834), son of President John Quincy Adams and Louisa Adams, dies an alcohol related death on October 23.

Johnson, Eliza

Robert Johnson (1834-1869), son of Andrew and Eliza Johnson, is born February 22.

Economics

Twenty-eight million acres of public land are offered for sale to those who wish to move west.

Discovery

The first settlement is established in Oregon.

Daily Life

Tomatoes are begun to be eaten in the U.S.; before this, people thought they were poisonous and they were only used as ornamental “love apples.”

Sports

Baseball: The first printed rules for a game much like baseball are found in the Book of Sports.

Sports

Baseball: Robin Carver publishes the "Book of Sports," the first American book on baseball.

Sports

Women in Sports: The first modern Lacrosse games are played. Lacrosse will become a major new sports opportunity for women in the 1990's with many colleges offering scholarship dollars. The original game was played by North American Indians.

Popular Culture

Madame Tussaud (1761-1850) opens her wax museum in London.

Social Issues

Native Americans: Under an 1828 treaty, the U.S. orders the Seminole Indians to leave Florida.

Social Issues

Native Americans: Four thousand Oglala people relocate to Fort Laramie to boost their fur trade with white people.

Reform

Abolition Movement: Anti-abolition riots occur in New York City and Philadelphia.

Reform

Labor Movement: The Factory Girls Association is organized in the Lowell textile mills; women workers stage their first strike, which fails.

Government

Congress pays off the national debt.

War

Mexican Wars: American settlers defeat a Mexican cavalry in the first battle of the Texas Revolution.

War

Indian Wars: A new Seminole War begins in Florida after the escape of Seminole leader Osceola.

Science

Hailey's comet appears in its usual 75-year cycle.

Inventions

The revolver is invented by Samuel Colt (1814-1862).

Inventions

Computers: Charles Babbage (1791-1871) invents a mechanical calculator.

Education

Education of Women: Harriet Hunt (c.1805-?) is accepted at Harvard Medical School, but the male students riot and she is forced to withdraw.

Education

Education of Women: Education for girls is established in Panama.

Education

Children''s Books: Hans Christian Anderson (1805-1875) publishes a book of his "Fairy Tales."

Education

African American Education: A school that enrolls 14 Black students in New Hampshire is burned to the ground.

Ideas

Alexis de Tocqueville (1805-1859) publishes his "Democracy in America," a work that is still quoted today.

Ideas

Women''s Rights Movement: Lydia Maria Child (1802-1880) publishes "History of the Condition of Women."

Jackson, Rachel

Assassination: President Andrew Jackson survives the first-ever assassination attempt on a U.S. president.

Taylor, Margaret

Sarah "Knox" Taylor Davis (1814-1835), daughter of Zachary and Margaret Taylor, dies September 15 of malaria.

Monroe, Elizabeth

Eliza Kortright Monroe Hay (1786-1835), daughter of President James Monroe and Elizabeth Monroe, dies in France at age 49, shortly after converting to the Catholic faith. Cause of death is unknown

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: 1,096 miles of railroad tracks are in use in the U.S.

Economics

Native Americans: Gold is found on Cherokee lands in Georgia.

Economics

The first cast-iron bridge in America is built over Dunlap’s Creek in Brownsville, Pennsylvania.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The "New York Herald" is published as a penny-paper.

Sports

For a purse of $1,000, nine runners participate in a 10-mile foot race on Long Island; the winner’s time is 59 minutes, 44 seconds.

Popular Culture

P.T. Barnum (1810-1891) begins his career as a showman in the U.S.

Popular Culture

A pseudoscience called “phrenology” becomes popular; it says that physiological features, especially of the head, determine character.

Religion

Women''s Firsts: Henrietta Hall Schuck becomes the first American female missionary in China at age 18.

Reform

Prison Reform: Mt. Pleasant Female Prison, the first American prison for women, is founded in New York.

Reform

Abolition Movement: Censorship efforts in Southern states expel abolitionists and forbid the mailing of antislavery propaganda.

Reform

Abolition Movement: Pro- and anti-slavery mobs clash in Charleston, South Carolina, in Boston, and in New York; in Boston, the pro-slavery attackers take William Lloyd Garrison (1805-1879) and parade him through the streets with a rope around his neck.

Law

Chief Justices: President Andrew Jackson(1767-1845) nominates Roger Brooke Taney (1777-1864) as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. He is confirmed by the Senate in 1836 and serves for twenty-eight years, the second-longest tenure of any Chief Justice.

Politics

Martin Van Buren (1782-1862) is elected as the 8th U.S. President and Richard M. Johnson (1780-1850) is elected as the nation's 9th Vice President.

Politics

Texas declares independence from Mexico.

Government

New State: Arkansas becomes the 25th state in the U.S.

Government

The Michigan territory is divided to create Wisconsin.

War

Mexican Wars: The battle of the Alamo takes placeover 13 days; less than 200 defenders are finally defeated by 2,500 Mexican soldiers.

Science

The first American botanical textbook, "Elements of Botany," is written by Asa Gray (1810-1888).

Science

Pepsin, the powerful ferment in gastric juice, is recognized by the German physiologist, Theodor Schwann (1810-1882).

Inventions

Francis Pettit Smith and John Ericcson (1803-1889) co-invent the propellor.

Education

Higher Education: Education of Women: Women’s Colleges: Wesleyan College is chartered to Georgia and is known for granting the first college degrees to women.

Education

Special Education: Laura Bridgman (1829-1889) becomes the first deaf-mute taught to communicate at the Perkins Institute.

Education

Public Education: The first McGuffey readers are published.

Education

Public Education: Child labor laws in Massachusetts require children to attend school for at least three months a year until they are 15.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Charles Dickens (1812-1870) writes "The Pickwick Papers."

Ideas

The first meeting of the Transcendentalist Club is held in Boston.

Madison, Dolley

James Madison (1751-1835) dies at the Madisons' home at Montpelier, and is buried there.

Fillmore, Abigail

Millard Fillmore (1800-1874) is elected again as a Representative to Congress; serves until 1839.

Lincoln, Mary

Mary Todd (1818-1882) enrolls for two more years at Ward’s academy.

Jefferson, Martha

Martha Washington Jefferson Randolph (1772-1836), daughter of Thomas and Martha Jefferson, dies of apoplexy on October 10.

Pierce, Jane

Franklin Pierce Jr. (1836), son of Franklin and Jane Pierce, is born February 2 and dies three days later on February 5.

Economics

American Money: With minimum regulation, a proliferation of 1,600 local state-chartered, private banks now issue paper money.

Daily Life

Gas stoves are manufactured for the first time.

Daily Life

The Arc de Triumphe, begun 30 years earlier, is finished.

Sports

Cricket: Batting pads for Cricket are invented.

Religion

The first Mormon Temple is dedicated in Kirtland, Ohio.

Social Issues

Native Americans: A written Seneca Indian language is devised by missionaries Laura Wright (1809-1886) and her husband.

Social Issues

Slavery: Texas wins independence from Mexico and legalizes slavery. Free blacks and mulattos are forbidden from entering the state.

Reform

Labor Movement: At age 11, mill worker Harriet Jane Hanson Robinson leads her young co-workers out in support of older workers striking in protest over wage cuts.

Reform

Abolition Movement: There are 500 active abolitionist societies in the North.

Reform

Temperance Movement: The Ladies' American Home Education Society and Temperance Union is founded.

Law

Membership on the Supreme Court is increased from seven to nine.

Government

President Andrew Jackson (1767-1845) recognizes the Republic of Texas on his last day in office, thereby preventing its admission as a slave territory.

Government

Martin Van Buren (1782-1862) is inaugurated as the 8th U.S. President and Richard M. Johnson (1780-1850) is inaugurated as the nation's 9th Vice President.

Government

New State: Michigan becomes the 26th state in the U.S.

Government

Presidents: Grover Cleveland (1837-1906), 22nd President of the U.S., is born in Caldwell, New Jersey.

War

Indian Wars: General Zachary Taylor tricks(1784-1850) Seminole leader Osceloa (c.1804-1838) and captures him.

Science

French mathematician Simeon Denis Poissson (1781-1840) develops the rules of probability by studying the incidence of death from mule kicks in the French army.

Inventions

Alfred Lewis Vail (1807-1859), Samuel Morse’s (1791-1872) assistant, develops the “Morse Code” of dots and dashes that will be used by telegraphers everywhere.

Inventions

John Deere (1804-1886) invents the steel-toothed plow.

Inventions

English schoolmaster, Rowland Hill (1744-1833) invents the postage stamp.

Education

Higher Education: Education of Women: Women’s Colleges: Mount Holyoke Female Seminary is founded and is chartered in 1888(becomes the model for other colleges in the future years).

Education

Public Education: Horace Mann (1796-1959) becomes head of the newly formed Massachusetts State Board of Education. Edmund Dwight (1716-1755), a major industrialist, thinks a state board of education was so important to factory owners that he offered to supplement the state salary with extra money of his own.

Education

Freidrich Froebel (1782-1852) establishes the first kindergarten in Germany.

Education

Higher Education: Education of Women: Women's Colleges: Mary Mason Lyon (1797-1849) opens Mt. Holyoke Seminary in Massachusetts, one of the first colleges for women.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Nathaniel Hawthorne’s (1804-1864) first work, "Twice-Told Tales" is published.

Ideas

Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882) publishes "The American Scholar."

Arthur, Ellen

Ellen Lewis Herndon (1837-1880), future wife of President Chester A. Arthur (1829–1886), is born August 30 in Culpepper Court House, Virginia.

Economics

Transportation: The first British liner made of iron—the Great Britain—is launched.

Economics

The economic Panic of 1837 is felt across the nation. Many people are out of work.

Daily Life

Victoria (1819-1901) becomes Queen of Great Britain. She is the first monarch to live in Buckingham Palace.

Daily Life

Magazines: Sarah Josepha Hale (1788-1879), author of "Mary Had A Little Lamb," begins editing the popular women''s magazine, "Godey''s Lady''s Book."

Sports

The first boat race, sponsored by the Castle Garden Boat Club, is held in Poughkeepsie, NY.

Sports

Women in Sports: Donald Walker's book, "Exercise for Ladies," warns women against horseback riding, because it deforms the lower part of the body.

Religion

American Presbyterians are split into the “old” and the “new.”

Reform

Abolition Movement: The first Anti-Slavery Convention of American Women is held in New York.

Reform

Labor Movement: The Grimké sisters found the National Female Anti-Slavery Society, one of the first to admit women of color from the start.

Government

Slavery: John Calhoun (1782-1850), Senator from South Carolina, introduces resolutions in the Senate affirming the legality of slavery.

War

Afrikaner (Boer) forces fight and defeat the Zulu at the Battle of Blood River in South Africa.

Science

The Royal Irish Academy elects astronomer Caroline Herschel to membership.

Science

The idea that cells are the basic building blocks of all living things is advanced.

Inventions

A one-day, brass movement clock is invented that is both accurate and inexpensive, giving rise to the term “Yankee ingenuity.”

Inventions

America’s first microscope is built by Charles A. Spencer (1813-1881).

Technology

Samuel Morse (1791-1872) gives the first demonstration of the telegraph.

Education

Education of Women: William Holmes MdGuffey (1800-1873) supports more liberal education for women.

Education

French philosopher Auguste Comte (1798-1857) gives the discipline of sociology its name.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Edgar Allen Poe (1809-1849) writes "Ligeia," often called the first work of American science fiction.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Charles Dickens (1812-1870) writes "Oliver Twist" and "Nicholas Nickleby."

Arts and Letters

Literature: Author James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851) publishes two novels criticizing American democracy; he is roundly criticized.

Harrison, Anna

William Henry Harrison (1802-1838), son of William Henry and Anna Harrison, is born September 3.

Economics

Transportation: The British liner Great Western sails from England on her maiden voyage; she is the first to cross the Atlantic regularly.

Economics

Transportation: The British steamship Sirius crosses the Atlantic solely on steam power in 18 days, 10 hours.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The New York "Herald" is the first U.S. newspaper to employ European correspondents.

Daily Life

The coronation of Queen Victoria (1819-1901) takes place a year after she ascends the throne.

Popular Culture

Jenny Lynd (1820-1887), the "Swedish Nightingale," makes her debut.

Social Issues

Native Americans: Fifteen thousand Cherokee Indians remaining in Georgia are moved by federal troops 800 miles westward in what becomes known as "the Trail of Tears."

Reform

Women's Suffrage: Widows with school-age children are allowed to vote in school board elections in Kentucky.

Reform

Abolution Movement: Angelina Grimké becomes the first woman to ever address an American legislature, speaking on abolition in Massachusetts.

Law

Women's Firsts: Mississippi becomes the first state to give the right to own property to women, although they must have their husbands’ permission.

Politics

Third Parties: The first anti-slavery political party, the Liberty Party, runs James Birney (1792-1857) for president. He loses.

Government

The kingdom of Belgium is recognized by all countries of Europe.

War

The first Opium War between Britain and China begins.

Science

Ozone is discovered and named.

Inventions

The first electric clock is invented.

Inventions

The first bicycle is constructed by Scottish inventor Kirkpatrick Macmillan (1813-1878).

Technology

Louis Daguerre (1787-1851) takes the first photograph of the moon.

Technology

Telegraph inventor Samuel F.B. Morse (1791-1872) makes the first daguerreotype portraits to be produced in the U.S.

Education

The Lowell Institute in Boston is founded to provide free lectures by eminent scholars.

Education

A College of Dental Surgery opens in Baltimore.

Education

Teacher Education: The first public normal school (teachers' college) is founded in Lexington, Massachusetts.

Ideas

The unofficial headquarters of the Transcendentalist Club is Elizabeth Palmer Peabody’s (1804-1894) Boston bookshop.

Madison, Dolley

Dolley Madison (1768-1849) moves back to Montpelier to try farming.

Harrison, Anna

Carter Bassett Harrison (1812-1839), son of William Henry and Anna Harrison, dies August 12.

Lincoln, Mary

Mary Todd (1818-1882) goes to live with her sister, Elizabeth Edwards (Mrs. Ninian), in Springfield, Illinois; she meets Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) there at a dance.

Tyler, Julia

Julia Gardner Tyler (1820-1889) is the first President's wife to pose for a department store advertisement.

Pierce, Jane

Frank Robert Pierce (1839-1843), son of Franklin and Jane Pierce, is born August 27.

Economics

The manufacture of rubber is pioneered by Charles Goodyear (1800-1860).

Daily Life

Magazines: The Lowell mill girls begin publishing "The Lowell Offering," a monthly magazine of poetry, fiction, and essays that becomes internationally known.

Sports

Horse Racing: The first Grand National horse race is run in Britain.

Sports

Baseball: Abner Doubleday (1819-1893) lays out the first baseball field and the first game is played.

Politics

William Henry Harrison (1773-1841) is elected the 9th President of the U.S., and John Tyler (1790-1862) is elected as the 10th Vice President on the Whig ticket.

Government

Upper and lower Canada are united by an Act of Parliament.

Government

Stamps: The first postage stamps appear in Britain, bearing Queen Victoria's (1837-1901) profile. The tiny stamps (3/4 by 7/8 inches) are printed using only black ink. Brazil is the second nation to have postage stamps.

Science

Louis Agassiz (1807-1873) publishes a work on the movements and effects of glaciers.

Science

The fundamentals of artificial fertilizer are discovered.

Science

James Joule (1818-1889) develops the idea that energy can be converted from one state to another, but cannot be destroyed.

Medicine

The American Society of Dental Surgeons is organized in New York City.

Inventions

Englishman John Herschel (1792-1871) invents the blueprint.

Education

Women’s Colleges: St. Mary-of-the-Woods College is founded in Indiana as the first of many women's institutions that are established by Catholic Sisters and is chartered in 1846.

Education

Public Education: Irish Catholics in New York City struggle for local neighborhood control of schools as a way of preventing their children from being force-fed a Protestant curriculum.

Ideas

Margaret Fuller (1810-1850) becomes editor of "The Dial," an influential transcentalist publication.

Adams, Abigail

"Selected letters" by Abigail Adams (1744-1818) on social, political, and other matters are published.

Harrison, Anna

Benjamin Harrison (1806-1840), son of William Henry and Anna Harrison, is born.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: There are 2,816 miles of railroad in operation in the U.S.

Economics

Transportation: The Cunard steamship line is established, the first with scheduled transatlantic sailings.

Economics

Population: The sixth national census shows a population of more than 17 million; 600,000 immigrants have arrived since 1830, 207,281 from Ireland.

Daily Life

Women''s Firsts: Elizabeth Peabody (1804-1894) becomes the first woman publisher in Boston and the U.S.

Daily Life

History of Toys: The first American dollmaker is granted a patent and dolls begin to be mass-produced in America for the first time.

Sports

The game of bowling (called nine pins) becomes popular in the U.S.

Popular Culture

The expression, "O.K." is first used; it refers to “Old Kinderhook,” birthplace of Martin Van Buren (1782-1862), and is also the name of a Democratic Club in New York City.

Popular Culture

The ritual of afternoon tea is introduced in Britain by Anna, the Duchess of Bedford (1788-1861).

Popular Culture

James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851) writes "The Pathfinder."

Social Issues

Native Americans: An increasing flow of emigrants to Oregon and California bring cholera, smallpox, and measles to the Indians as well as accelerated buffalo hunting for the fur trade.

Social Issues

Immigration: Over a million Irish immigrants arrive in the United States, driven out of their homes in Ireland by the potato famine.

Social Issues

Slavery: Slaves on the Spanish ship Amistad mutiny and sale the ship into a Connecticut harbor.

Reform

Abolition Movement: Lydia Maria Child (1802-1880) and her husband, David Lee Child (1794-1874), edit the Anti-Slavery Standard until 1844.

Reform

Labor Movement: The 10-hour day is established for federal employees by a Presidential order.

Reform

Abolition Movement: Women's Rights Movement: William Lloyd Garrison refuses to speak at the World’s Anti-Slavery Convention in London because women have been excluded from the meeting.

Reform

Abolution Movement: Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton are chosen as delegates to the World’s Anti-Slavery Convention in London.

Law

Slavery: Affirming a strong argument made by John Quincy Adams (1767-1848), the Supreme Court rules that the slaves who took over the Amistad may be freed. Thirty-five freed men return to Africa.

Government

President William Henry Harrison (1773-1841) dies in office and is replaced by Vice-President John Tyler (1790-1852) as the 10th U.S. president; no new Vice President is selected.

Government

Tyler’s cabinet resigns over his veto of a bill creating a national bank; Daniel Webster remains Secretary of State.

Government

New Zealand becomes a British crown colony.

War

Mexican Wars: Texas soldiers invade New Mexico and claim all land east of the Rio Grande. Their efforts are thwarted by Governor Manuel Armijo (1793-1853).

Medicine

James Braid (1795-1860), Scottish surgeon, investigates the use of hypnosis.

Inventions

Adolphe Sax (1814-1894) invents the saxophone.

Inventions

Cornstarch is patented by Orlando Jones.

Inventions

Samuel Slocum (1792- 1861) patents the stapler.

Technology

The first U.S. steam fire engine is tested in New York City.

Education

Education of Women: Oberlin College in Ohio is the first to grant college degrees to women.

Education

New England transcendentalists found the commune and school, Brook Farm.

Education

Education of Women: Catherine Beecher (1800-1878) publishes "A Treatise on Domestic Economy."

Education

Children''s Books: Harriet Martineau (1802-1876) publishes a collection of children’s stories, "The Playfellow."

Education

Children’s Books: Unlike the early nineteenth-century Rousseauesque castaways, Victorian versions of the Crusoe story stressed adventure, manliness, and self-help. Well-known examples include Captain Marryat's reassuringly Evangelical Masterman Ready.

Education

Children’s Books: Frederick Marryatt (1792-1848), an ex-naval officer who wrote a whole series of shipboard novels. His Masterman Ready, or the Wreck of the Pacific, first published in three volumes in 1841-42.

Ideas

Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882) writes "Self Reliance."

Madison, Dolley

Dolley Madison (1764-1849) returns to Washington, DC.

Harrison, Anna

Anna Symmes Harrison (1775-1864) is the first President's wife to never get to see or live in the White House because her husband, William Henry Harrison, died before she could join him there. President Harrison delivered the longest inaugural address (105 minutes) on a very cold winter day and contracted pneumonia.

Tyler, Letitia

Letitia Christian Tyler (1790-1842) is the First Vice President's wife to become First Lady at the death of the former president.

Pierce, Jane

Benjamin Pierce (1841-1853), son of Franklin and Jane Pierce, is born April 13.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The "New York Tribune" begins publishing, edited by Horace Greeley.

Popular Culture

Edgar Allan Poe (1809-1849) publishes the first detective story, "Murders in the Rue Morgue."

Popular Culture

James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851) writes "The Deerslayer."

Popular Culture

Charles Dickens (1812-1870) writes "The Old Curiosity Shop."

Social Issues

Slavery: Slaves aboard the U.S.S. Creole take over the ship and sail it to Nassau, where they become free.

Social Issues

Slavery: Texas gives its citizens the right and responsibility to apprehend runaway slaves and turn them over to the law so that they may be returned to their owners or sold at auction.

Government

The border between the U.S. and Canada is established from Maine to the Great Lakes.

Government

American author Washington Irving (1783-1859) is appointed ambassador to Spain.

Government

Stamps: The first adhesive postage stamps are used in the U.S.

War

Indian Wars: After destroying the Seminoles’ crops and villages, U.S. troops force a peace treaty and move them to Indian Territory in eastern Oklahoma.

Science

The Doppler Effect is described by Christian Doppler (1803-1853).

Medicine

The first surgery using an anesthetic—ether—is performed by Dr. Crawford Long (1815-1878) of Georgia.

Inventions

Joseph Dart builds the first grain elevator.

Education

Women's Colleges: Augusta Female Seminary—later Mary Baldwin Seminary, then College) is founded by Presbyterians in Staunton, VA; it will become one of the best-known early 19th century schools for girls.

Arts and Letters

The New York Philharmonic Orchestra gives its first performance.

Ideas

Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882) becomes editor of "The Dial," an influential transcendentalist publication.

Tyler, Letitia

Letitia Christian Tyler (1790-1842) dies of a second stroke in the White House on September 10. She is the first First Lady to die during her husband's presidency.

Mary Todd (1818-1882) and Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) are married on November 4 at her sister Elizabeth’s house in Springfield.

Harrison, Anna

Mary Symmes Harrison Thornton (1809-1842), daughter of William Henry and Anna Harrison, dies November 16.

Discovery

John Charles Fremont (1813-1890) maps the Oregon Trail and wagon trains begin to move west.

Daily Life

Disasters: Mount St. Helens in Washington state erupts.

Sports

Horse Racing: Horse races at the Union Course on Long Island attract thousands of fans.

Popular Culture

P.T. Barnum (1810-1891)exhibits the young midget, Tom Thumb (Charles Sherwood Stratton, c. 1850).

Reform

Labor Movement: The landmark Supreme Court decision, Commonwealth v. Hunt, rules that trade union are not illegal, the striking for a closed shop is legal, and that unions cannot be held responsible for illegal actions by individuals.

Politics

Jefferson Davis (1808-1889) enters politics as a delegate to the Democratic State Convention in Alabama.

Government

Diplomatic representatives are sent to Hawaii by the U.S.

Government

Presidents: William McKinley (1843-1901), 25th President of the U.S. is born in Niles, Ohio.

Government

The first town meeting is held in Boston at Faneuil Hall.

Inventions

A U.S. patent for a hand-cranked ice cream freezer is granted to Nancy M. Johnson.

Inventions

Alexander Bain (1818-1903) of Scotland invents the facsimile.

Technology

Airplanes: William Samuel Henson, England, proposes the Aerial Steam Carriage in "Mechanics Magazine," the first known design for a propeller-driven fixed-wing aircraft.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Alfred Lord Tennyson (1809-1892) writes "Morte d’Arthur" and "Locksley Hall."

Ideas

Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855) lays the foundations for existentialism by stressing the primacy of the individualand the inevitability of suffering.

Ideas

Women''s Rights Movement: Margaret Fuller (1810-1850) writes “The Great Lawsuit: Man versus Men, Woman versus Women.”

Lincoln, Mary

Mary Todd (1818-1882) and Abraham Lincoln’s(1809-1865) son Robert Todd (1843-1926) is born August 1 in Springfield, in the Globe Tavern, where the Lincolns lived for a time after their marriage.

Pierce, Jane

Frank Robert Pierce (1839-1843), son of Franklin and Jane Pierce, dies November 14 of typhoid fever; Franklin Pierce begins to wonder if God is taking his children.

Economics

Samuel Morse (1791-1872) starts to build a telegraph line between Baltimore and Washington, DC.

Discovery

John Charles Fremont (1813-1890) crosses the Rocky Mountains into California.

Daily Life

Fashion: A new form of female dress--bloomers--is introduced by Amelia Bloomer (1818 - 1894).

Daily Life

The first use of the word “millionaire” occurs in newspapers.

Daily Life

The History of Toys: The Mansion of Happiness is developed by S.B. Ives in Salem, Massachusetts. It becomes the first board game sold in the United States.

Sports

Skiing begins as a sport in Norway.

Sports

Rowing is introduced at Harvard.

Popular Culture

American Theathre: The first minstrel show is performed in New York City.

Popular Culture

Charles Dickens (1812-1870) publishes "A Christmas Carol."

Religion

The Jewish organization B’nai B’rith is founded.

Religion

Sojourner Truth (1797-1883) becomes a traveling evangelical preacher.

Reform

Labor Movement: The Lowell Female Labor Reform Association wins the first investigation of labor conditions by a government agency.

Reform

Mental Health Movement: Dorothea Dix (1802-1887) pushes reforms in the way mental health patients are treated through the Massachusetts legislature.

Politics

James Knox Polk (1795-1849) is elected as the 11th President of the U.S., and George Dallas (1792-1864) is elected as the nation's 11th Vice President.

Government

A plan to annex Texas is rejected by the Senate.

Government

The first treaty of peace, amity, and commerce is signed by the U.S. with China.

War

A gun on the new frigate Princeton, being demonstrated by the U.S. Navy, explodes, killing the Secretaries of State and the Navy, as well as other government officials.

Medicine

Nitrous oxide is first used in dentistry.

Inventions

Paper made from wood pulp is invented by Friedrich Keller.

Inventions

Englishman John Mercer (1829- 1897) invents mercerized cotton.

Technology

Charles Goodyear (1800-1860) receives a patent for rubber vulcanization.

Technology

Samuel F.B. Morse (1791-1872) sends his first telegraph message to an associate 45 miles away: the message is, “What hath God wrought?”

Arts and Letters

Literature: Alexander Dumas (1802-1870) writes "The Three Musketeers."

Ideas

Karl Marx (1818-1883) writes of religion as “the sigh of the oppressed creature, the feelings of a heartless world…the opium of the people.”

Madison, Dolley

Dolley Madison (1768-1849) sells Montpelier and is the first First Lady to be granted a permanent seat on the floor of the House of Representatives.

Lincoln, Mary

Mary Todd (1818-1882) and Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) buy a home from the Episcopal minister who had married them. This will prove to be the only home the couple ever own.

Tyler, Julia

Julia Gardner (1820-1889) is the first woman to marry an American President while he was in office.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy Webb's (1831-1889) mother, Maria Webb, moves her family to Delaware, Ohio, so that her sons, Joseph and James, can enroll in the newly formed Methodist college, Ohio Wesleyan University.

Economics

Morse’s (1791-1872) telegraph is used for the first time between Baltimore and Washington, DC.

Daily Life

The first private bath in an American hotel is built in the New York Hotel.

Sports

Cricket: The first official international cricket match is played: Canada vs. United States.

Religion

Brigham Young (1801-1877) is chosen to replace Joseph Smith (1805-1844) as leader of the Mormons.

Religion

The Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) is founded in England.

Reform

Anti-Child Labor Movement: The Factory Act in England prohibits children under 13 from working more than 6 ½ hours a day.

Government

Congress establishes the first week in November for election day; the harvest is over but the roads are still passable.

Government

The U.S. Senate overrides a presidential veto for the first time.

Government

New State: Florida becomes the 27th state in the Union.

Government

New State: Texas becomes the 28th state in the Union.

Government

James Knox Polk (1795-1849) is inaugurated as the 11th President of the U.S., and George Dallas (1792-1864) is inaugurated as the nation's 11th Vice President.

Inventions

American Elias Howe (1819-1867) invents a sewing machine.

Inventions

Sarah Mather receives a patent for a submarine telescope.

Inventions

Rubber bands are invented.

Inventions

The first pneumatic tires are patented in England.

Technology

Airplanes: William Samuel Henson and John Stringfellow (1799-1883) attempt to form the Aerial Transit Company, which (if only they had a practical airplane), would have been the world's first airline. To drum up support, they build and test a model of Henson's aerial carriage with a 20-foot wingspan. It makes brief glides, but does not sustain flight.

Education

The first written examinations in elementary schools begin in Boston.

Education

Higher Education: The U.S. Naval Academy opens at Annapolis, MD.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Edgar Allan Poe (1809-1849) publishes his poem, “The Raven” with the famous line, “Quoth the Raven, Nevermore.”

Ideas

Catherine Beecher writes An Essay on Slavery and Abolitionism with Reference to the Duty of American Women to Their Country

Ideas

Margaret Fuller publishes Women in the Nineteenth Century, an expansion of her earlier essay calling for equality for women.

Jackson, Rachel

Andrew Jackson (1767-1845), 7th President of the U.S., dies at the Hermitage in Nashville, Tennessee.

Polk, Sarah

Sarah Childress Polk (1803-1891) is the first First Lady to be "selected" by the previous President for her position (President Tyler told newly elected James Polk that he needed to get married and should marry Sarah). As a result of this selection, Sarah is the first First Lady to serve as her husband's personal secretary.

Harrison, Anna

Anna Tuthill Harrison Taylor (1813-1845), daughter of William Henry and Anna Harrison, dies July 5.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy Webb (1831-1889) attends classes at Ohio Wesleyan and receives some credits from the College, although female students are not officially enrolled there.

Economics

Power looms for weaving carpets and tapestries are built by Erastus Bigelow (1814-1879).

Daily Life

The Eastern Hotel in Boston becomes the first steam-heated building in the U.S.

Daily Life

Magazines: "Scientific American Magazine" begins publication.

Religion

Children’s Books: "Letter to My Young Cousin" by American Sunday school Union. This is a book of religious advice on behavior in the family, written as from one teenage girl to another.

Social Issues

Immigration: The potato crop fails in Europe, hitting Ireland especially hard; Irish immigrants continue to flock to the U.S.

Reform

Labor Movement: The Industrial Congress of the U.S., one of the earliest labor unions, is organized.

Government

New State: Iowa becomes the 29th state in the U.S.

War

Mexican War: The U.S. declares war on Mexico over California. U.S. forces under General Zachary Taylor (1784-1850) defeat the Mexicans at Palo Alto, the Navy occupies Monterey, and the territory of New Mexico is annexed to the U.S.

Science

Caroline Herschel (1750-1848) is awarded the King of Prussia’s Gold Medal for science.

Science

The planet Neptune is discovered by German astronomer Johann Gottfied Galle.

Medicine

Dr. William Morton (1819-1868), a Massachusetts dentist, is the first to use anesthesia for tooth extraction.

Inventions

Elias Howe (1819-1867) receives a patent for his sewing machine.

Education

The Smithsonian Institution is established in Washington, DC as a center for scientific research.

Education

Education of Women: The National Academy of Design accepts women students.

Ideas

Catherine Beecher (1800-1878) publishes "The Evils Suffered by American Women and American Children."

Lincoln, Mary

With Mary’s (1818-1882) encouragement, Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) is elected to the U.S. House of Representatives.

Lincoln, Mary

Edward Baker (1846-1850), son of Mary Todd and Abraham Lincoln, born on March 10 in Springfield.

Harrison, Anna

Elizabeth "Betsey" Bassett Harrison Short (1796-1846), the oldest daughter of William Henry and Anna Harrison, is born September 29.

Harrison, Anna

Elizabeth "Betsey" Bassett Harrison Short (1796-1846), the oldest daughter of William Henry and Anna Harrison, dies September 26.

Tyler, Julia

David Gardiner "Gardie" Tyler (1846-1927), the first son born to John Tyler and his second wife Julia, is born on July 12.

Daily Life

Women''s Firsts: Sarah Bagley (1806-1848) becomes the first woman telegrapher in the U.S.

Daily Life

The first painted Christmas card is designed.

Sports

Baseball: New York surveyor Alexander Cartwrite codifies the rules of baseball.

Sports

Baseball: The first recorded baseball game is played in Hoboken, NJ.

Popular Culture

Edward Lear (1812-1888) publishes his "Book of Nonsense."

Religion

The Mormons under Brigham Young (1801-1877) move westward beyond the U.S. borders to the Great Salt Lake.

Religion

The American Missionary Association is founded, combining Protestant evangelicalism with abolitionism.

Social Issues

Slavery: During the Mexican-American War, Mexico is defeated and forced to yield an enormous amount of territory to the United States. Americans then wrestle with a controversial topic: Should slavery be permitted in the new lands?

Reform

Capital Punishment: Michigan becomes the first state to outlaw capital punishment.

Government

California comes under U.S. control.

Government

Liberia, colonized by American ex-slaves, becomes the first independent republic in Africa.

Government

Stamps: United States stamps debut. The first two feature George Washington (1732-1799) and Ben Franklin (1706-1790).

Science

Maria Mitchell (1818-1889) discovers a new comet which is named after her.

Science

Joseph Leidy (1823-1891) suggests that the environment affects changes (evolution) within a species.

Medicine

Childbirth assisted by anesthetic (chloroform) first takes place.

Medicine

The American Medical Association is organized in Philadelphia.

Medicine

Epidemics: Another world-wide epidemic of influenza occurs.

Medicine

Antiseptics are developed by Ignaz Semmelweis (1818-1865), a Hungarian.

Inventions

The ophthalmoscope is invented by Charles Babbage (1791-1871) .

Education

Women's Colleges: Rockford Female Seminary (later College) is founded in Rockford, IL; it is called the “Mount Holyoke of the West.”

Arts and Letters

Literature: Emily Bronte (1818-1848) writes "Wuthering Heights" and Charlotte Bronte (1816-1855) writes "Jane Eyre."

Fillmore, Abigail

The Fillmore (1800-1874) family moves to Albany when Fillmore is elected state comptroller; the children are away at boarding school and college.

Mckinley, Ida

Ida Saxon (1847-1907), future wife of President William McKinley (1843–1901), is born in Canton, Ohio on June 8.

Tyler, Letitia

Alice Tyler Denison (1847-1854), daughter of John and Letitia Tyler, is born March 23.

Economics

Evaporated milk is made for the first time.

Daily Life

Disasters: Forty-seven of the eighty-seven members of the Donner Party die while trapped in the Sierra Mountains.

Daily Life

The California town of Yerba Buena is renamed San Francisco.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The telegraph is used to transfer stories over great distances, thus making news more immediate.

Religion

The Mormons found Salt Lake City, Utah.

Social Issues

Immigration: The first Chinese immigrants arrive in the U.S.

Social Issues

Immigration: Irish immigration reaches 105,000, 3 times more than the year before.

Social Issues

Native Americans: Taos Rebellion against the U.S. military occurs.

Reform

Abolition Movement: Frederick Douglass (1817-1895) , escaped ex-slave, begins publishing his abolitionist newspaper, the North Star.

Reform

Anti-Child Labor Movement: Women and children in Britain may only work a 10-hour day.

Politics

Zachary Taylor (1784-1850) is elected 12th President of the U.S. on the Whig ticket; Millard Fillmore is elected as the 12th Vice President.

Politics

Third Parties: Former Democratic President Martin van Buren (1782-1862) becomes the presidential candidate of the anti-slavery Free-Soil Party. He wins 10 percent of the popular vote, and is credited with siphoning off enough votes from Democratic candidate Lewis Cass (1782-1866 ) to help Whig candidate Zachary Taylor (1784- 1850) win the election.

Government

New State: Wisconsin becomes the 30th state in the U.S.

War

Mexican Wars: The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ends the war with Mexico, the U.S. receives New Mexico and California as well as parts of Nevada, Utah, Arizona and Colorado for $15 million.

Science

Maria Mitchell (1818-1889) becomes the first woman to be elected a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Science

Hyperion, the eighth moon of Saturn, is discovered.

Medicine

Epidemics: More than 5,000 deaths are caused by a cholera epidemic in New York City.

Inventions

Margaret (Mattie) Knight (1838-1914) (10) invents a stop-motion device to keep shuttles from sliding out of the looms and injuring workers.

Inventions

Chewing gum is invented by John B. Curtis (1827–1897) of Maine.

Inventions

Waldo Hanchett patents the dental chair.

Education

Women’s Colleges: Moore College of Art is founded in Philadelphia (then called the Philadelphia School of Design for Women); it is the first and only women's visual arts college in the nation--and one of only two in the world.

Education

Libraries: Boston Public Library becomes the first publicly supported major urban library.

Education

Public Education: Massachusetts Reform School at Westboro opens, where children who have refused to attend public schools are sent. This begins a long tradition of "reform schools," which combine the education and juvenile justice systems.

Education

Public Education: The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo guarantees citizenship rights to everyone living in new American areas, mostly Mexicans and Native people. It also guarantees the continued use of the Spanish language, including in education. One hundred fifty years later, in 1998, California breaks that treaty, by passing Proposition 227, which would make it illegal for teachers to speak Spanish in public schools.

Education

Education of Women: A medical school for women opens with 12 students in Boston.

Ideas

Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) publish "The Communist Manifesto."

Adams, Louisa

John Quincy Adams (1767-1848), son of Abigail and John Adams, dies of a massive stroke on February 23.

Tyler, Letitia

Mary Tyler Jones (1815-1848), the first daughter born to John and Letitia Christian Tyler, dies June 17.

Taylor, Margaret

Margaret Smith Taylor (1788-1852) is the only First Lady whose portrait does not hang in the White House. She refused to ever have it made.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy Webb (1831-1889) meets Rutherford B. Hayes for the first time when he is visiting her town with his mother. She begins college at the Cincinnati Wesleyan Female College this year as well.

Tyler, Julia

John Alexander "Alex" Tyler (1848-1883), son of John Tyler and his second wife Julia, is born on April 7.

Economics

Gold is first discovered in California, in Sutter's mill. After President Polk (1795-1849) announces the news in December, the gold rush begins soon after.

Daily Life

Niagara Falls stops flowing for the first time in history because of an ice jam in the Niagara River.

Popular Culture

Stephen Foster (1826-1864) writes “Oh, Susannah,” which becomes popular among the “49ers” and establishes his reputation as a song writer.

Religion

Spiritualism becomes popular in the U.S.

Social Issues

Native Americans: The California Gold Rush begins, increasing Western expansion across former Native American lands.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: The National Convention of Colored Freedmen held in Cleveland, Ohio resolves that women should be elected delegates on an equal basis with men.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: The first Women’s Rights convention is held in Seneca Falls, NY.

Government

Zachary Taylor (1784-1850) is inaugurated as the 12th President of the U.S. and Millard Fillmore is inaugurated as the 12th Vice President.

Government

Thomas Ewing (1829-1896) of Ohio is appointed as the first Secretary of the Interior, a department created to meet the needs of western settlers.

Government

Congress establishes the Minnesota territory.

Science

Jeffries Wyman (1814-1874) describes the similarities between the skeletons of apes and humans.

Medicine

Women's Firsts: Female doctors are permitted to practice medicine for the first time in the U.S., and Elizabeth Blackwell (1821-1910) becomes the first woman physician in the U.S.

Inventions

The safety pin is invented by Walter Hunt (1796-1859) , trying to satisfy a $15 debt; he spends 3 hours bending wire into various forms.

Inventions

Mary Ann Woodward patents a fan that attaches to a rocking chair.

Technology

Airplanes: Sir George Cayley (1773-1857), builds a small glider designed to lift about 80 pounds of the ground. He refers to it as his Boy Glider. It is the first recorded manned (or boyed) fixed-wing aircraft. It lifts a 10-year old boy off the ground for a few yards on test runs. Cayley also flew it in a high wind like a kite, tethered to the ground.

Education

Children’s Books: Anna Maria Hall (1800-1881) is one of the most prolific Victorian writers for children, best known for such moral tales as "Grandmamma's Pockets."

Education

The Free Academy in New York City opens; it will become the College of the City of New York and offer free education to the children of New York’s working class.

Madison, Dolley

Dolley Madison (1768-1849) dies on July 12 at the age of 81.

Polk, Sarah

James K. Polk (1795-1849) is the first President to be photographed while in office; he dies on June 15 in Nashville, Tennessee.

Fillmore, Abigail

The family moves to Washington.

Lincoln, Mary

Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) applies for a patent on a floating dry dock; he is the only U.S. President to do so.

Harrison, Caroline

Caroline Harrison (1832-1892) meets Benjamin Harrison (1831-1901) , a student of her father’s in Cincinnati.

Tyler, Julia

Julia Tyler Spencer (1849-1871), daughter of John Tyler and his second wife Julia, is born on December 25.

Economics

Seven thousand “49ers” invade California in a search for gold.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: The Pacific Railroad Company is chartered, the first railroad west of the Mississippi River.

Economics

Women''s Rights Movement: Amelia Bloomer (1818 - 1894) begins publishing "The Lily," moving it to Ohio in 1853 and employing female typesetters in spite of a strike by males on the staff.

Sports

The Pearl of Bermuda beats the U.S. yacht Brenda in the first recognized international yacht race.

Social Issues

Native Americans: The giant redwood trees in California are named Sequoias in honor of the Cherokee Indian Chief, Sequoya (c.1770-1843).

Social Issues

Slavery: California holds a convention, adopting a constitution that forbids slavery and requests admission to the Union.

Social Issues

Immigration: The California Gold Rush sparks first mass immigration from China.

Reform

Abolition Movement: Maryland slave Harriet Tubman (c.1820-1913) escapes to the North with some help from her friends.

Government

Slavery: The Compromise of 1850 is passed after bitter debates about slavery in new territories and states.

Government

Vice President Millard Fillmore (1800-1847) becomes the 13th President of the U.S. on the death of Zachary Taylor. No new Vice President is selected.

Government

New State: California becomes the 31st state in the U.S.

Government

The city of Los Angeles is incorporated.

Government

New Mexico (which included present day Arizona, southern Colorado, southern Utah, and southern Nevada) is designated a territory, but denied statehood.

Science

The inner-most ring of Saturn is discovered.

Inventions

The continuous stitch sewing machine is invented by Isaac Singer (1811-1875).

Inventions

Joel Houghton is granted the first dishwasher patent in 1850.

Technology

Newspapers: Powerful, giant presses appear, and they are able to print ten thousand complete papers per hour.

Technology

The first clear photograph of the moon is made (a daguerreotype).

Education

Education of Women: The Female Medical College of Pennsylvania is founded.

Education

Public Education: One of the first “free,” or public, schools in New Jersey is founded by Clara Barton (1821-1912).

Education

Children’s Books: "Three Little Kittens" and other stories from Mama Lovechild''s Series were issued by the American toy and game publisher, McLoughlin Brothers.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1806-1861) writes "Sonnets from the Portuguese."

Arts and Letters

Literature: Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864) writes "The Scarlet Letter."

Lincoln, Mary

Edward Baker Lincoln (1846-1850), son of Mary Todd and Abraham Lincoln, dies of tuberculosis at age 3, on February 1.

Lincoln, Mary

William Wallace Lincoln (1850-1862), son of Mary Todd and Abraham Lincoln, is born on December 21.

Taylor, Margaret

President Zachary Taylor (1784-1850), 12th President of the U.S., dies of indigestion on July 9 in Washington D.C. after less than a year-and-a-half in office on .

Fillmore, Abigail

The first library in the White House is established by Abigail Fillmore (1798-1853); She used her furniture money to buy the books. In addition to the library, she also had the first White House bathtub installed and replaced the fireplace used for cooking with the first White House cookstove.

Tyler, Letitia

Elizabeth "Lizzie" Tyler Waller (1823-1850), daughter of John and Letitia Tyler, dies June 1 from childbirth complications.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy Webb Hayes (1831-1889) is the first First Lady to earn a college degree from Cincinnati Wesleyan.

Monroe, Elizabeth

Maria Hester Monroe Gouverneur (1803-1850) President James Monroe and Elizabeth Monroe, dies at the age of 47.

Grant, Julia

Fredrick Dent Grant (1850-1912), son of Ulysses and Julia Grant, is born May 30.

Economics

Young Bavarian-American Levi Strauss (1829-1902) invents blue jeans.

Economics

Population: The population of the U.S. is 23 million (3.2 million black slaves).

Daily Life

Fashion: Crinolines become popular in the U.S., later to be replaced by hoop skirts.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The first "pictorial" weekly newspapers emerge; for the first time they feature extensive illustrations of news events.

Popular Culture

Charles Dickens (1812-1870) publishes "David Copperfield."

Popular Culture

P.T. Barnum (1810-1891) brings Jenny Lind (1820-1887) to sing in the U.S.

Popular Culture

Steven Foster (1826-1864) writes “Camptown Races.”

Social Issues

Native Americans: Silversmithing is introduced to the Navajo Indians, who make it an art form.

Social Issues

Slavery: The Compromise of 1850 includes the Fugitive Slave Act, a law designed to assist in the recovery of runaway slaves by increasing federal officers and denying fugitive slaves a right to a jury trial.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: Women gain the right to own land in Oregon.

Reform

Abolition Movement: Harriet Tubman (c.1820-1913) begins to lead slaves to freedom on the Underground Railroad. She makes 19 trips back to the South to free about 300 slaves.

Government

American Money: Three-cent coins are authorized by Congress.

Government

National Capital: The dome on top of the Capitol Building is designed.

Science

Understanding of the rotation of the earth is advanced.

Medicine

Elizabeth Blackwell (1821-1910) sets up a small medical clinic in a New York City tenement district.

Medicine

The use of glass eyes is introduced; many think they will restore sight.

Education

Libraries: The first law allowing towns to support free libraries through taxes is passed in Massachusetts.

Education

Teacher Education: White American education pioneer Myrrilla Miner opens a teaching college for black women in Washington, DC, the Miner Normal School, amid threats, arson attempts, and stone-throwing mobs.

Education

Libraries: Fire at the Library of Congress burns two-thirds of its collection, 900 of which have still to be replaced.

Education

Public Education: State of Massachusetts passes its first compulsory education law. The goal is to make sure that the children of poor immigrants get "civilized" and learn obedience and restraint, so they make good workers and don't contribute to social upheaval.

Arts and Letters

Opera: Giuseppe Verdi’s (1813-1901) opera "Rigoletto" is first performed in Venice.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Herman Melville (1819-1891) publishes "Moby Dick."

Hayes, Lucy

Rutherford B. Hayes (1822-1881) asks Lucy Webb (1831-1889) to marry him; she accepts.

Tyler, Julia

Lachlan Tyler (1851-1902), son of John Tyler and his second wife Julia, is born December 2.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The "New York Times" begins publishing.

Daily Life

The first double-decker omnibus, drawn by horses, appears in England.

Daily Life

Fashion: Amelia Jenks Bloomer (1818-1894) gives her name to “bloomers,” a split skirt designed by Elizabeth Smith Miller (1822-1911) for bicycle riding.

Sports

In the America’s Cup race, the U.S. yacht America beats the British yacht Aurora on Cowes, England.

Sports

Baseball: The first baseball uniforms are worn by the New York Knickerbockers—straw hats, white shirts, and blue trousers.

Popular Culture

Stephen Foster (1826-1864) publishes “Old Folks at Home.”

Popular Culture

Children’s Books: The American abolitionist novel Uncle Tom's Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe (1812-1896) was pirated and abridged to become a children's classic. Although the book presents both African-American and white characters through melodrama and stereotype, the novel has received increasing critical reappraisal in recent years.

Religion

The first Young Men’s Christian Association (WMCA) opens in Boston.

Social Issues

Native Americans: The Sioux Indians give their Iowa lands, and most of their lands in Minnesota to the U.S.

Reform

Temperance Movement: Prohibition against liquor is begun in Maine and Illinois.

Reform

Native Americans: Bishop Jean Baptiste Lamy (1818-1888) arrives in New Mexico and establishes schools, hospitals and orphanages throughout the territory.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: Sojourner Truth (1797-1883) gives her famous "Ain't I a Woman" speech at the Women's Rights Convention in Akron, Ohio.

Reform

Harriet Beecher Stow publishes the first installment of "Uncle Tom's Cabin" in an abolitionist weekly. After 40 more installments, it is published as a book in 1852.

Politics

Democrat Franklin Pierce (1804-1869) is elected as the 14th President of the U.S., defeating the Whig candidate, General Winfield Scott; William R. King (1786-1853) is elected as the 13th Vice President. The Whig party ceases to be a power.

Government

Napoleon III (1808-1873) becomes the Emperor of France.

Government

The South African Republic (Transvaal) is established.

Government

Stamps: The first pre-stamped envelopes are sold. Pre-stamped postcards (for a penny) appear 19 years later.

Science

Kerosene is discovered and named.

Medicine

A Dutch army surgeon creates the first cast for broken bones by injecting bandages with plaster.

Inventions

Elisha Gray (1835-1901) invents a safety device to prevent the fall of heavy machinery; his invention makes the development of the elevator possible.

Inventions

James Otis (died 1861) designs a passenger elevator.

Inventions

The non-rigid airship is invented by Henri Giffard.

Education

Education of Women: Elizabeth Blackwell (1821-1910) publishes "The Laws of Life, with Special Reference to the Physical Education of Girls."

Education

Women's Colleges: The National Women’s Education Association is founded by Catherine Beecher (1800-1878) to provide help for women’s colleges, and promote the idea of women as teachers.

Education

The first effective school attendance law is passed in Massachusetts; it requires at least 12 weeks attendance for all children between 8 and 14, six of which must be consecutive.

Education

Libraries: The Boston Public Library is founded.

Education

Women’s Colleges: Mills College is founded in California; it is the oldest women's college in the western part of the United States.

Adams, Louisa

Louisa Catherine Johnson Adams (1775-1852) dies in Washington on May 15 at the age of seventy-seven; the U.S. Congress adjourns to attend her funeral, the first time this honor is conferred upon a woman.

Taylor, Margaret

Margaret Mackall Smith Taylor (1788-1852) dies near Pascagoula, Mississippi on August 18 at the age of sixty-four.

Johnson, Eliza

Andrew Johnson Jr. (1852-1879), son of Andrew and Eliza Johnson, is born August 6.

Grant, Julia

Ulysses Simpson "Buck" Grant Jr. (1852-1929), son of Ulysses and Julia Grant, is born July 22.

Madison, Dolley

John Payne Todd (1792-1852), the biological son of Dolley Madison and the stepson of President James Madison, dies of typhoid fever. John''s life choices, made him a charlatan and constant disgrace to his parents.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy Webb (1831-1889) and Rutherford B. Hayes (1822-1881) are married on December 30 in Cincinnati.

Economics

The Wells Fargo Company is founded.

Discovery

Livingstone (1813-1873) begins explorations of the Zambezi River in South Africa.

Daily Life

The U.S. imports sparrows from Germany as a defense against caterpillars.

Sports

The first intercollegiate rowing race is held between Harvard and Yale.

Popular Culture

The character of “Uncle Sam” appears for the first time in the "New York Lantern Weekly."

Popular Culture

Stephen Foster (1826-1864) writes “My Old Kentucky Home.”

Religion

American Catholics hold their first Plenary Council in Baltimore.

Social Issues

Immigration: Chinese immigration is encouraged in California, particularly to provide labor for building railroads.

Reform

Labor Movement: Ohio becomes the first state to regulate working hours for women.

Reform

Temperance Movement: The Woman’s New York Temperance Society is formed by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony.

Government

With the Gadsden Treaty, the U.S. secures land from Mexico that completes its acquisition of land in the continental United States.

Government

The Washington Territory is formed from part of the Oregon Territory.

Government

Franklin Pierce (1804-1869) is inaugurated as the 14th President of the U.S., and William R. King (1786-1853) is inaugurated as the 13th Vice President. King dies soon after taking office, and is not replaced.

Medicine

Alexander Wood (1817-1884) uses hypodermic syringes for injections under the skin.

Medicine

Smallpox vaccinations are made compulsory in Britain.

Medicine

Chloroform is used by Queen Victoria (1819-1901) as an anesthetic in the birth of her 7th child; it becomes an accepted practice in England.

Medicine

Epidemics: More than 3,000 perish from yellow fever in New Orleans.

Inventions

African American inventors: George Crum invents the potato chip.

Technology

Airplanes: The first heavier-than-air flying machine, a glider, flies across a valley for 500 yards carrying its frightened creator, George Cayley (1773-1857).

Education

Higher Education: Antioch College in Ohio opens.

Education

Women's Colleges: American educator Mary Easton Sibley (1800-1878) founds the Lindenwood Female College in Missouri.

Education

Children’s Books: From his weekly magazine, "Household Words," Charles Dickens (1812-1870) waxes nostalgic for the educationally-incorrect fairy tales and nursery rhymes of his youth, such as Aladdin or Jack the Giant-Killer.

Arts and Letters

Painting: Rosa Bonheur’s (1822-1899) painting, "The Horse Fair," establishes her reputation as an artist.

Fillmore, Abigail

Abigail Powers Fillmore (1798-1853) dies of pneumonia at the Willard Hotel in Washington at the age of fifty-five.

Harrison, Caroline

Caroline Scott (1832-1892) graduates from the Oxford Female Academy. She begins teaching

Pierce, Jane

Benjamin Pierce (1841-1853), son of Franklin and Jane Pierce, dies tragically January 16 in a train accident before his parents' eyes.

Hayes, Lucy

Birchard Austin Hayes (1853-1926), son of Rutherford and Lucy Hayes, is born November 4 in Cincinnati, Ohio.

Lincoln, Mary

Mary Todd and Abraham Lincoln’s son Thomas "Tad" (1853-1871) is born on April 4 in Springfield.

Tyler, Julia

Lyon Gardiner Tyler (1853-1935), son of John Tyler and his second wife Julia, is born in August.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: The Baltimore and Ohio railroad is completed as far as the Ohio River.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: The New York Central railroad is formed, connecting New York City and Buffalo, NY.

Economics

The building of Steinway pianos is begun in New York City by Henry Steinway (1797-1871) and his three sons.

Economics

Tiffany and Company, jewelers, is established.

Economics

Condensed milk is introduced by Gail Borden (1801-1871).

Economics

American Money: Three-dollar gold pieces are authorized by Congress.

Discovery

Commander Matthew Perry (1794-1858) sails into Japan’s Edo Bay, hoping to open Japan to trade with the west.

Religion

Women's Firsts: Antoinette Brown Blackwell (1825-1921) becomes the first ordained minister of a recognized denomination, the Congregationalists.

Reform

Women's Suffrage Movement: Seventy-three women present a petition to the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention urging women’s suffrage.

Politics

Political Parties: The Republican Party is formed in Ripon, Wisconsin; opposition to slavery is their central principle.

Politics

Third Parties: The Know-Nothing Party is formed; native white Protestants opposed to immigration and Catholicism run Millard Fillmore (1800-1874) for President.

Government

Clara Barton (1821-1912) becomes perhaps the first regularly appointed woman civil servant in the U.S. with a clerkship in a Washington, DC patent office.

Government

The Gadsden Purchase Treaty is ratified.

Medicine

Florence Nightingale (1820-1910) introduces nurses and standards of cleanliness into military hospitals in the Crimea.

Inventions

The first form of the electric light bulb is invented by Heinrich Goebel (1818-1893) in Germany.

Inventions

The Smith and Wesson revolver is invented.

Technology

The use of the Bunsen burner is introduced.

Education

Special Education: The first state-supported school especially designed for the mentally retarded opens in Syracuse, NY.

Education

Education of Women: Emily Blackwell (1826-1910), Elizabeth Blackwell’s sister, earns a medical degree at Cleveland’s Western Reserve University.

Arts and Letters

Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862) writes "Walden," or "Life in the Woods."

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Alfred Lord Tennyson (1809-1892) writes "The Charge of the Light Brigade," a poem about a tragic battle in the Crimean War.

Harrison, Caroline

Caroline (1832-1892)and Benjamin Harrison (1831-1901) move to Indianapolis, Indiana.

Fillmore, Abigail

Mary Abigail (Abby) Fillmore (1832-1854) dies of cholera on July 27 at the age of 22.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy (1831-1889) and Rutherford Hayes (1822-1893) and their family move into its own house in Cincinnati.

Tyler, Letitia

Alice Tyler Denison (1847-1854), daughter of John and Letitia Tyler, dies June 8 of colic.

Harrison, Caroline

Caroline and Benjamin Harrison’s son, Russell Benjamin Harrison (1854-1936), is born on August 12.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: Immigration: 13,000 Chinese arrive, the beginning of large-scale Chinese immigration; they are employed largely in railroad building in the west.

Popular Culture

Stephen Foster (1826-1864) writes “Jeanne with the Light Brown Hair.”

Religion

Pope Pius IX (1792-1878) sets forth the dogma of the Immaculate Conception.

Social Issues

Slavery: During the Kansas-Nebraska Act, Congress sets aside the rulings from the Missouri Compromise of 1820 and allows these two new territories to choose whether or not to allow slavery. Violent clashes erupt.

Reform

Abolition Movement: Northern resistance to the expansion of slavery increases.

Reform

Temperance Movement: Black temperance advocate Frances Ellen Watkins Harper (1825-1911) lectures for antislavery societies.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: Susan B. Anthony collects 6,000 signatures on a petition for women’s rights.

Law

The first U.S. Court of Claims is established.

Government

Stamps: Prepayment of postage is required in United States

Inventions

Kerosene is patented by Abraham Gesner (1797-1864) .

Inventions

The printing telegraph is invented.

Inventions

The first patent for the production of rayon is obtained by George Audemars.

Education

The first German-language kindergarten in the United States is established by Margarethe Schurtz in Watertown, WI.

Education

A professorship of technology is created at Edinburgh University.

Education

Children’s Books: Charlotte Yonge (1823-1901) publishes the children's historical novel, "The Little Duke," and also "The History of Sir Thomas Thumb, a traditional folktale to which Yonge adds material from the Arthurian legends and from the German tales of the Brothers Grimm.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807-1882) writes "Hiawatha."

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Walt Whitman (1819-1892) writes "Leaves of Grass."

Arts and Letters

The Boston Philharmonic Orchestra is organized.

Lincoln, Mary

Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) runs unsuccessfully for the Senate.

Van Buren, Hannah

Martin Van Buren (1812-1855), son of Martin and Hannah Van Buren, dies in Paris on March 19.

Grant, Julia

Ellen Wrenshall "Nellie" Grant Sartoris Jones (1855-1922), daughter of Ulysses and Julia Grant, is born July 4.

Economics

Transportation: The first Cunard liner crosses the Atlantic in 9 ½ days.

Economics

The first oil refinery in the U.S. is built in Pittsburgh.

Discovery

Missionary David Livingstone (1813-1873) discovers falls on the Zambezi River which he names Victoria Falls.

Sports

Horseback riding by women becomes popular; many riding academies are set up to help women learn.

Social Issues

Slavery: Fugitive slave Ann Wood leads a wagon load of armed boys and girls in a shootout with slave catchers; two are killed and the rest escape to the North.

Politics

James Buchanan (1791-1868) , Democrat, is elected the 15th President of the U.S., and John C. Breckenridge (1821-1875) is elected as the nation's 14th Vice President.

Politics

Third Parties: Former President Millard Fillmore (1800-1874) is selected to be the presidential candidate of the Know-Nothing or American Party.

Government

Presidents: Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924) , 28th President of the United States, is born.

War

The Crimean War ends with the signing of the Treaty of Paris.

Science

A Neanderthal skull is found in a cave near Dusseldorf in Germany.

Inventions

Henry Bessemer (1813-1898) invents a process which makes it possible to mass-produce low-cost steel.

Inventions

A patent for a pencil with an attached eraser is granted to H.L. Lipman.

Inventions

Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) invents the process of pasteurisation.

Technology

Railroad History: The first railroad bridge across the Mississippi River is completed between Rock Island, Illinois and Davenport, Iowa.

Arts and Letters

American Theatre: The first American copyright law is established because of the efforts of Dion Boucicault (1820-1890). In its earliest form, it only protects the title of the play.

Tyler, Julia

Robert Fitzwalter Tyler (1856-1927), son of John Tyler and his second wife Julia, is born March 12.

Lane, Harriet

Harriet Lane (1830-1903) serves as James Buchanan's hostess because he never married.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy and Rutherford Hayes’s second son, James Webb Hayes (1856-1934), is born on March 20th in Cincinnati.

Hayes, Lucy

Fannie Hayes Platt, Rutherford’s sister and Lucy’s great friend, dies of complications of childbirth.

Economics

The first street trains, powered by steam, begin running between Boston and Cambridge, MA.

Economics

The Western Union Company is established.

Discovery

Borax is discovered in California.

Sports

Boxing: The longest bare-knuckle boxing match in history pits James Kelly vs. Jack Smith in Melbourne, Australia; the fight lasts 6 hours and 15 minutes.

Sports

Women in Sports: Catherine Beecher (1800-78) publishes Physiology and Calisthenics for Schools and Families, the first fitness manual for women.

Social Issues

Native Americans: The Pottawatomie Massacre takes place in Kansas.

Reform

Abolition Movement: An anti-slavery group led by John Brown (1800-1859) attacks a pro-slavery settlement in Franklin County, Kansas. Horace Greeley’s (1811-1872) "New York Tribune" calls the territory “Bleeding Kansas.”

Law

Slavery: In the Dred Scott decision, the Supreme Court rules that slaves are not free just because they live in a free state, that blacks do not have the right to sue in federal court, and that Congress does not have the right to try to exclude slavery from the territories.

Government

Presidents: William Howard Taft (1857-1930) , 27th President of the United States, is born.

Government

National Capital: The House of Representatives moves into its current home in the south wing of the Capitol.

Government

James Buchanan (1791-1868) is inaugurated as the 15th President of the U.S., and John C. Breckenridge (1821-1875) is inaugurated as the nation's 14th Vice President.

Government

Stamps: Perforated U.S. stamps appear (Previously people had to cut apart sheets of stamps).

Science

Yeast is discovered to be a living plant.

Science

Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) proves that fermentation is caused by living organisms.

Science

In a letter to Asa Gray (1810-1888) , Charles Darwin (1809-1882) first outlines his theories of evolution and natural selection.

Medicine

Elizabeth Blackwell (1821-1910) founds her own New York Infirmary for Women and Children.

Medicine

Epidemics: One of the worst epidemics of influenza begins this year and spreads around the world in the next two years.

Inventions

George Pullman (1831-1897) invents the Pullman Sleeping Car for train travel.

Technology

Airplanes: Jean-Marie Le Bris (1817-1872), a French sea caption, tests a glider modeled after an albatross. This "artificial bird" makes one short glide, but on the second glide it crashes and Le Bris breaks his leg.

Education

Children’s Books: Thomas Hughes (1822-1896), writes "Tom Brown's Schooldays," making Arnold's Rugby the model for what Victorian schoolboys expected their schools to be like.

Education

Libraries: The Watkinson Library is founded as a “a library of reference” for the community of Hartford, Connecticut.

Education

The National Education Association is founded in Philadelphia for the purpose of advancing the professionalism of teaching.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Gustave Flaubert (1821-1880) publishes "Madame Bovary."

Ideas

'The Atlantic Monthly' is founded.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy Hayes (1831-1889) takes great pleasure in her new sewing machine, a gift from her mother.

Lane, Harriet

Harriet Lane (1830-1903) is the first woman to have a federal steamship named after her.

Economics

E.G. Otis installs the first safety elevator.

Economics

The laying of the transatlantic cable begins.

Economics

A financial panic triggers a serious depression; thousands of businesses fail.

Daily Life

Central Park, in New York City, is designed.

Daily Life

Holidays: The first Mardi Gras pageant of decorated floats is held in New Orleans.

Daily Life

The American Chess Association is formed.

Sports

Baseball: Twenty-five teams form the first baseball association, the National Association of Baseball Players.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: The Married Women’s Property Bill passes in England.

Government

A treaty of peace, friendship, and commerce is signed between the U.S. and China.

Government

New State: Minnesota becomes the 32nd state in the U.S.

Government

Presidents: Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919) , 26th President of the United States, is born.

Government

Britain takes over the government of India from the East India Company.

Science

The cell is isolated by Berlin doctor Rudolf Virchow (1821-1902) , who calls it the basic unit of all life.

Inventions

Hamilton Smith (1862-1943) patents the rotary washing machine.

Inventions

Jean Lenoir (1822-1900) invents an internal combustion engine.

Education

Children’s Books: Rev. Frederic William Farrar (1831-1903), a schoolmaster, writes the moralistic tale "Eric," or "Little by Little," about a boy who goes bad.

Education

A chemistry department and research lab are established by Harvard University.

Arts and Letters

The first public concert is performed by the New York Symphony Orchestra.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: “The Courtship of Miles Standish” is published by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807-1882).

Lincoln, Mary

Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) runs for the Senate from Illinois against incumbent Democrat Stephen Douglas (1813-1861); he loses, but the Lincoln-Douglas debates form a part of U.S. history.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy and Rutherford Hayes’s third son, Rutherford Platt Hayes (1858-1927), is born on June 24 in Cincinnati.

Hayes, Lucy

Rutherford Hayes (1822-1893) is appointed to an unexpired term as city solicitor of Cincinnati in December.

Hayes, Lucy

The Hayes family has its first Christmas tree, decorated as a surprise by their German servants.

Harrison, Caroline

Caroline and William Harrison’s first daughter, Mary Scott (1858-1930) is born on April 3.

Grant, Julia

Jesse Root Grant (1858-1934), son of Ulysses and Julia Grant, is born February 6.

Economics

The transatlantic cable is completed, allowing telegraphic communication between the U.S. and Britain; the service ends after a month because the signal is too weak.

Economics

Transportation: Stagecoach service and mail delivery begin between San Francisco and St. Louis.

Economics

Macy’s Department Store opens.

Discovery

Lake Tanganyika in East Africa is first discovered by Europeans.

Daily Life

Princess Victoria (1840-1901) of England (daughter of Queen Victoria) chooses Wagner’s “Bridal Chorus” and Mendelssohn’s “Wedding March” for her wedding, thus beginning a tradition.

Daily Life

Crime and Punishment: The first use of fingerprints as a means of identification occurs in India.

Sports

Baseball: The National Association of Baseball Players is organized.

Religion

Marie-Bernard Soubirous (1843-1879), later to become St. Bernadette of Lourdes, first sees a vision of the Virgin Mary at Lourdes in France.

Religion

The Ladies’ Christian Association, forerunner to the Young Women’s Christian Association (YWCA), is founded in New York City.

Religion

Another religious revival begins in New York and Pennsylvania and sweeps across the country; religious conversions are many.

Social Issues

Slavery: Slaves are sold at very high prices because of high demand for cotton, and southerners begin to talk about reopening the slave trade.

Law

The Supreme Court upholds the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850; Georgia prohibits the deathbed manumission of slaves and rules that free blacks can be sold back into slavery; tensions between North and South escalate.

Government

President James Buchanan (1791-1868) rules that the New Mexico territory should become a reservation for American Indians.

Government

New State: Oregon becomes the 33rd state in the U.S.

Government

National Capital: The Senate moves into the enlarged north wing of the Capitol, where it remains, today.

War

The first iron-clad armored warship, Britain’s HMS Warrior, is launched.

Science

Botanist Almira Hart Lincoln Phelps (1793-1884) is the second woman elected to the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Science

Charles Darwin’s (1809-1882) "Origin of the Species" is published.

Inventions

The first practical storage battery is invented.

Inventions

The steamroller is invented.

Education

The Cooper Union in New York City is established, primarily for adult education in the arts and sciences.

Arts and Letters

Opera: The opera "Faust" is performed.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Charles Dickens (1812-1870) writes "A Tale of Two Cities."

Arts and Letters

Women's Firsts: Harriet E. Wilson (1827-1863), author of "Our Nig," becomes the first African-American novelist published in the U.S.

Hayes, Lucy

Rutherford B. Hayes (1822-1893) is elected to his own two-year term as city solicitor in Cincinnati.

Hayes, Lucy

The Hayes home is enlarged, with quarters for servants and a brick kitchen with a new range.

Economics

Work is begun on the Suez Canal.

Economics

The first commercial oil well is brought in at Titusville, PA.

Discovery

The first large silver deposit found in the U.S., the Comstock Lode, is found in Nevada.

Daily Life

Big Ben, the clock tower of the Houses of Parliament in London is started.

Sports

Baseball: The first intercollegiate baseball game in the U.S. is played by students from Amherst and Williams Colleges in Massachusetts.

Sports

The first national billiards champion wins a $15,000 prize.

Popular Culture

Charles Blondin (1824-1897) walks across Niagara Falls on the tightrope; he is watched by 25,000 people.

Popular Culture

Wearing the body-hugging costume later named for him, Jules Leotard (1839-1870) performs the first flying trapeze act without a net at the Cirque Napoleon.

Popular Culture

Daniel Emmett (1815-1904) writes “Dixie” and "Turkey in the Straw."

Reform

Abolition Movement: John Brown (1800-1859) seizes the armory at Harper’s Ferry to provide for his militia; he is later captured and hanged.

Politics

Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) of Illinois becomes the first Republican to win the United States Presidency; he becomes the 16th President and Hannibal Hamlin (1809-1891) of Maine is elected as the 15th Vice President.

Politics

South Carolina secedes from the Union followed within two months by Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas.

Government

Stamps: By 1860, almost all countries have postage stamps.

Government

The U.S. Secret Service is established.

Science

The fact that the star Sirius is a double star is discovered.

Medicine

Florence Nightingale (1820-1910) opens the world’s first school of nursing.

Inventions

The first practical gasoline engine is built.

Education

The first English language kindergarten is established in Boston by Elizabeth Peabody (1804-1894).

Education

Olympia Brown (1835-1926) becomes the first woman to study theology with men—at St. Lawrence University.

Arts and Letters

Literature: George Eliot(1819-1880) (Mary Ann Evans) publishes "The Mill on the Floss."

Arts and Letters

American Theatre: Dion Boucicault (1820-1890) begins promotion of "combination companies". The company and players would travel with scenery for 1 play.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy Hayes’s (1831-1889) boys suffer from mumps, whooping cough, and measles.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy Hayes (1831-1889) and her husband take a long trip, by riverboat, to Canada, by rail and boat to Boston, to New England and home by way of New York City. Total cost: $310.77.

Harrison, Caroline

Caroline Harrison (1832-1892) begins 30 years of serving on the board of managers of the Indianapolis Orphans’ Asylum.

Wilson, Ellen

Ellen Louise Axson (1860-1914), future first wife of President Woodrow Wilson (1856–1924), is born in Savannah, Georgia on May 15.

Harding, Florence

Florence Kling DeWolfe (1860-1924), future wife of President Warren G. Harding (1865–1923), is born in Marion, Ohio on August 15.

Tyler, Julia

Pearl Tyler Ellis (1860-1947), daughter of John Tyler and his second wife Julia, is born June 20.

Arthur, Ellen

William Lewis Arthur (1860-1863), son of Chester Alan and Ellen Arthur, is born December 10.

Economics

Slavery: Cotton shipments are at an all-time high (2 billion pounds a year), which gives the South extra incentives to keep slavery.

Economics

The first Pony Express riders make it from Missouri to California in 10 days.

Economics

Population: The population of the United States (1860) is 32 million.

Daily Life

Fashion: Bustles begin to take the place of hoop skirts in American women’s fashion.

Daily Life

History of Toys: A chemistry set for children is offered for sale for $5.00.

Sports

Boxing: The longest prizefight in American history is held in Maine; it lasts for 4 hours and 20 minutes.

Sports

Croquet is introduced to the U.S. from England; it becomes very popular.

Sports

Golf: The first British Open Golf Championship is held.

Popular Culture

Stephen Foster (1826-1864) composes “Old Black Joe.”

Social Issues

Native Americans: The U.S. Army's Fort Definace in New Mexico is attacked by 1,000 Navaho Indians; the Indians lose.

Social Issues

Immigration: Poland’s religious and economic conditions prompt immigration of approximately two million Poles by 1914.

Reform

Women's Suffrage Movement: Elizabeth Cady Stanton speaks to a meeting of the New York State Legislature on behalf of women’s suffrage.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: Women are allowed to collect their own wages, to sue, and to inherit their husbands’ property in New York State; married women are allowed to be guardians of their children

Reform

Labor Movement: Six thousand shoemakers go on strike in Lynn, MA for higher wages; the companies grant higher wages but refuse to recognize the union.

Politics

Jefferson Davis (1808-1889) is elected President of the Confederate States of America.

Politics

Virginia secedes from the Union, followed within five weeks by Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina, thus forming an eleven state Confederacy with a population of 9 million.

Government

Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) is inaugurated as the 16th President and Hannibal Hamlin (1809-1891) is inaugurated as the 15th Vice President.

Government

New State: Kansas becomes the 34th state in the United States.

Government

The United States introduces the passport system.

Government

Congress passes the first income tax in the U.S. to support the war.

War

Civil War: The Union Army under Gen. Irvin McDowell (1818-1885) suffers a defeat at Bull Run 25 miles southwest of Washington.

War

Civil War: Pierre Beauregard (1813-1893) opens fire with 50 cannons upon Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina. The Civil War begins.

War

Civil War; National Capital: The U.S. Capitol houses Union soldiers, providing medical attention and a place to sleep.

War

Confederates invade New Mexico from Texas.The Confederate Territory of Arizona is declared with the capital at La Mesilla.

Inventions

Elisha Otis (1811-1861) patents elevator safety brakes, creating a safer elevator.

Inventions

Linus Yale (1821-1868) invents the Yale lock or cylinder lock.

Education

The first American doctor of philosophy degree is awarded by Yale University.

Education

Women's Colleges: Vassar College for women is founded in Poughkeepsie, NY.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: George Eliot (1819-1880) (Mary Ann Evans) writes "Silas Marner."

Arts and Letters

Literature: Charles Dickens (1812-1870) writes "Great Expectations."

Harrison, Caroline

Caroline (1832-1892) and Benjamin (1831-1901) Harrison’s third child and second daughter dies at birth.

Hayes, Lucy

Rutherford B. Hayes (1822-1893) joins the 23rd Ohio Volunteer infantry as a Major.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy and Rutherford Hayes’s fourth son, Joseph Thompson (1861-1863), is born on December 21 in Cincinnati.

Lincoln, Mary

The Lincolns (Abraham: 1809-1865 and Mary Todd: 1818-1882) move into the White House in March of 1861.

Roosevelt, Edith

Edith Kermit Carow (1861-1948), future wife of Theodore Roosevelt (1858–1919), is born in Norwich, Connecticut on August 6.

Taft, Helen

Helen Herron (1861-1943), future wife of President William Howard Taft [1909-1913] is born in Cincinnati, Ohio on June 2.

Economics

American Money: Gold payments are suspended; greenbacks become the national currency.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: Leland Stanford (1824-1893) hires Chinese laborers to help build the western part of the Central Pacific Railroad.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: There are 30,000 miles of railroad track in the U.S.

Economics

Telegraph wires are strung between San Francisco and New York.

Economics

Pencils are mass-produced in New York by Eberhard Faber.

Economics

American Money: Congress authorizes the United States Treasury to issue paper money for the first time in the form of non-interest bearing Treasury Notes called Demand Notes.

Daily Life

Daily weather forecasts are begun in Britain.

Popular Culture

Hot Air Balloons: A record balloon trip is made between Cincinnati, Ohio and the South Carolina coast is made in 9 hours.

Popular Culture

Wartime Music: “The Battle Hymn of the Republic” is written during the Civil War by Julia War Howe for the Union.

Popular Culture

Wartime Music: “Battle Cry of Freedom” is written during the Civil War by George F. Root for the Union.

Popular Culture

Wartime Music: “Dixie Land” is written during the Civil War by Daniel Emmett for the Confederate.

Government

The Homestead Act is passed, decreeing that any American may have 160 acres of land in the west free, if he lives on it for five years.

Government

President Lincoln (1809-1865) issues the Emancipation Proclamation, declaring all slaves "henceforth and forever free."

Government

The U.S. Department of Agriculture is created by Congress.

Government

The Medal of Honor is authorized by Congress.

Government

Railroad History: President Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) signs the Pacific Railway Act, which authorizes the construction of the first transcontinental railroad.

Government

American Money: The Secretary of the Treasury is empowered by Congress to have notes engraved and printed, which is done by private banknote companies.

War

Civil War: The bloodiest battle of the Civil War occurs at Antietam; over 23,000 are killed or wounded.

War

Civil War: The Confederate Ironclad 'Merrimac' sinks two wooden Union ships then battles the Union Ironclad 'Monitor' to a draw. Naval warfare is thus changed forever, making wooden ships obsolete.

War

Civil War: Confederate surprise attack on Gen. Ulysses S. Grant's (1822-1885) unprepared troops at Shiloh on the Tennessee River results in a bitter struggle with 13,000 Union killed and wounded and 10,000 Confederates.

War

Civil War: 75,000 Federals under Gen. John Pope (1874-1937) are defeated by 55,000 Confederates under Gen. Stonewall Jackson (1824-1863) and Gen. James Longstreet (1821-1904) at the second battle of Bull Run in northern Virginia.

Science

The speed of light is successfully measured.

Medicine

The first children’s clinic is opened in New York City.

Inventions

The Gatling (a 10 barrel, automatic firing) gun is invented by R.J. Gatling (1818-1903).

Inventions

A timepiece for split-second timing—the chronograph—is invented.

Inventions

Alexander Parkes (1813-1890) invents the first man-made plastic.

Inventions

Jean Lenoir (1822-1900) makes a gasoline engine automobile.

Education

Children’s Books: Christina Rossetti''s (1830-1894) long fantasy, "Goblin Market," about two sisters'' struggle to resist the tempting fruits of the goblin men, was long categorized as a children''s fairy tale, but is increasingly reread as a major poem of its period.

Education

Women's Firsts: In Ohio, Mary Jane Patterson receives a degree from Oberlin, becoming the first black woman to graduate from an American college.

Education

African American Education: One of the earliest and longest-lived freedmen’s schools, the Penn School on St. Helena Island, NC, is founded by Laura Matilda Towne (1825-1901).

Education

Women's Firsts: Geologist Florence Bascom (1862-1945) becomes the first woman to receive a Ph.D. from Johns Hopkins University; she goes on to teach at Bryn Mawr.

Education

The Morrill Land-Grant Act endows colleges of agriculture and industry.

Arts and Letters

Literature; Victor Hugo (1802-1885) writes "Les Misérables."

Lincoln, Mary

The Lincolns’ son William Wallace (1850-1862) dies of typhoid fever at age 11 on February 20.

Harrison, Caroline

Benjamin Harrison (1831-1901) raises a regiment for the Union in the Civil War (1,000 men from Indiana) known as the 70th Indiana Regiment.

Tyler, Julia

John Tyler (1790-1862), 10th President of the U.S., dies in Richmond, Virginia.

Van Buren, Hannah

Martin Van Buren (1782-1862), 8th President of the U.S., dies in Kinderhook, New York.

Economics

1,000 guns a day are being produced by the Colt factory.

Economics

The first automobile with an internal combustion engine is constructed.

Economics

A process for concentrating fruit juice is patented.

Economics

American Money: Demand Notes are replaced by United States Notes.

Popular Culture

Julia Ward Howe's (1819-1910) poem, "The Battle Hymn of the Republic" is published and later set to music. The music for "Taps" is also composed.

Government

President Lincoln (1809-1865) issues the final Emancipation Proclamation freeing all slaves in territories held by Confederates and emphasizes the enlisting of black soldiers in the Union Army.

Government

New Mexico is divided in half, creating the Territory of Arizona.

Government

New State: West Virginia becomes the 35th state in the United States.

Government

President Lincoln (1809-1865) delivers the Gettysburg Address.

Government

Congress establishes free mail delivery in cities.

Government

National Capital: The "Statue of Freedom" is place on top of the Capitol building and becomes the crowning feature of the dome.

War

Civil War: The tide of war turns against the South as the Confederates are defeated at the Battle of Gettysburg in Pennsylvania.

War

Civil War: The Union institutes a draft to recruit soldiers for the Civil War.

War

Civil War: The Battle of Gettysburg takes place.

Science

The National Academy of Sciences is founded in Washington, DC.

Education

Children’s Books: The Rev. Charles Kingsley’s (1819-1875) fairy tale "The Water-Babies" combines many of these enthusiasms in a tale of how a little chimney-sweep goes backward in evolution when he is wicked, and forwards when he does as he would be done by.

Arts and Letters

Samuel Langhorne Clemens (1835-1910) adopts the pen-name, Mark Twain.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Henry Wordsworth Longfellow (1807-1882) publishes the poem, “Paul Revere’s Ride.”

Pierce, Jane

Jane Means Appleton Pierce (1806-1863), wife of Franklin Pierce (1804-1869), dies of tuberculosis in Andover, Massachusetts on December 2 at the age of 57.

Arthur, Ellen

William Lewis Arthur (1860-1863), son of Chester Alan and Ellen Arthur, dies July 7.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy and Rutherford Hayes’s fourth son, Joseph (1861-1863), dies of dysentery at the age of two on June 24.

Johnson, Eliza

Charles Johnson (1830-1863), son of Andrew and Eliza Johnson, dies April 4 in a horse accident.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy Hayes (1831-1889), her four sons, and her mother go to West Virginia to be with Rutherford (1822-1893) and his regiment.

Economics

Transportation: The world''''s first underground railway service, London''''s Metropolitan line between Paddington and Farringdon, is opened.

Economics

Traveler’s Insurance Company is founded in Hartford, CT.

Economics

American Money: The design of U.S. currency incorporates a Treasury seal, the fine line engraving necessary for the difficult-to-counterfeit itaglio printing, intricate geometric lathe work patterns, and distinctive linen paper with embedded red and blue fibers.

Daily Life

Holidays: The first national Thanksgiving Day is proclaimed by President Lincoln (1809-1865) to be the fourth Thursday of November.

Daily Life

The first paper dress patterns are developed by Ebenezer Butterick (1826-1903).

Sports

The four-wheeled roller skate is patented by James Plimpton of New York.

Sports

Horse Racing: The Grand Prix horse race is first held in Paris.

Popular Culture

Stephen Foster (1826-1864) composes “Beautiful Dreamer.”

Religion

Olympia Brown (1835-1926) is ordained a minister by the Northern Universalists in Weymouth, MA.

Religion

The Seventh Day Adventist church was officially founded by Ellen G White, James White and Joseph Bates.

Social Issues

Native Americans: Kit Carson (1809-1868) begins resettling Navajo and Apache Indians on reservations by force.

Social Issues

Slavery: The Emancipation Proclamation delivered by President Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) decrees that all slaves in Rebel territory are free on January 1, 1863.

Law

Chief Justices: President Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) nominates Salmon Portland Chase (1808-1873) Chief Justice of the Supreme Court; he is confirmed by the Senate on the same day, and holds the position for eight years, until his death in 1873.

Politics

Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) is reelected for a second term as President of the United States, and Andrew Johnson (1808-1875) is elected as the nation's 16th Vice President.

Government

New State: Nevada becomes the 36th state in the United States.

Government

The territory of Montana is organized.

Government

Twenty-six nations sign the Geneva Conventions, an agreement to respect humanitarian rules of war with respect to prisoners, sick soldiers, Red Cross neutrality, and civilians in war zones.

Government

American Money: Congress authorizes the inscription, "In God We Trust" on U.S. coins.

War

Civil War: General William Tecumseh Sherman (1820-1891) marches his Union army through Georgia, captures Atlanta and Savannah, and leaves a 300 mile path of destruction, 60 miles wide, all the way to the sea.

Medicine

Women's Firsts: Dr. Mary Edwards Walker (1832-1919) is appointed assistant surgeon in the Union Army.

Inventions

African American Inventors: Inventor Norbert Rillieux (1806-1894) patents a process for refining sugar that is used by sugar processing plants all over the world.

Technology

Airplanes: Count Ferdinand d’Esterno, France, publishes the first scientific observations of the effects of the wind on a wing in his pamphlet, "Du Vol des Oiseaux."

Education

Public Education: Native Americans: Indian Education: Congress makes it illegal for Native Americans to be taught in their native languages. Native children as young as four years old are taken from their parents and sent to Bureau of Indian Affairs off-reservation boarding schools, whose goal, as one BIA official put it, is to "kill the Indian to save the man."

Education

Women’s Firsts: Rebecca Lee Crumpler (1846-1922) becomes the first black woman to receive an M.D. degree. She graduated from the New England Female Medical College.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910) begins writing his epic, "War and Peace."

Arts and Letters

Literature: Jules Verne (1828-1905) publishes "A Journey to the Center of the Earth."

Harrison, Anna

Anna Tuthill Symmes (1775-1864) Harrison dies on February 25 in North Bend, Ohio, at the age of eighty-eight.

Cleveland, Frances

Frances Folsom (1864-1947), future wife of President Grover Cleveland (1837–1908), is born in Buffalo, New York, on July 21. She is the sixth of ten First Ladies born in New York, the "mother state" of presidential wives. (Rose Elizabeth Cleveland, sister of Grover Cleveland, served as his First Lady during the first two years of his presidency, and is the fifth First Lady born in New York State).

Hayes, Lucy

Rutherford B. Hayes (1822-1893) runs for Congress from Ohio and wins without ever leaving his troops.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy and Rutherford Hayes’s fifth son, George Crook (1864-1866) is born on September 29 in Chillicothe, Ohio.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: The Pennsylvania Railroad begins using steel for its rails.

Daily Life

Taking pictures that will be become famous as a record of the Civil War, New York photographer Matthew Brady (1822-1896) travels through the nation's battlefields.

Daily Life

Newspapers: In Louisiana, the New Orleans Tribune begins publication. It is one of the first African-American-run daily newspapers.

Social Issues

Immigration: European immigration to the U.S. increases, due in large part to the Homestead Act and also because immigrants are excluded from the draft.

Social Issues

Native Americans: Many Navahos die as they make the "Long March" through New Mexico to their grim reservation at Bosque Redondo.

Social Issues

Native Americans: The massacre of Cheyenne and Arapahoe Indians at Sand Creek, CO occurs.

Reform

Labor Movement: The first International Workingmen's Association is founded by Karl Marx (1818-1883) in London and New York.

Law

Civil Rights Movement: The Thirteenth Amendment, forbidding slavery, is passed by the Congress, ratified by two-thirds of the states and added to the Constitution.

Government

Warren G. Harding (1865-1923), 29th President of the United States, is born near Marion, Ohio.

Government

American Money: Gold Certificates are issued by the Department of the Treasury against gold coin and buillion deposits and are circulated until 1933.

Government

American Money: The Department of the Treasury establishes the United States Secret Service to control counterfeit money.

Government

Following the assassination of President Lincoln, his Vice-President, Andrew Johnson (1808-1875), becomes the 17th President of the United States. No new Vice President is selected.

War

Indian Wars: Escalation of the Plains War between the U.S. military and the Sioux and Cheyenne.

War

Civil War: Gen. Robert E. Lee (1807-1870) surrenders his Confederate Army to Gen. Ulysses S. Grant (1822-1885) at the village of Appomattox Court House in Virginia; the Civil War ends.

Science

Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) proposes the laws of heredity.

Medicine

Antiseptic surgery is initiated by Joseph Lister (1827-1912) using carbolic acid.

Medicine

The Chicago Hospital for Women and Children is established, in part, by Dr. Mary Harris Thompson, one of the best-known surgeons of her era.

Medicine

Women's Firsts: Dr. Mary Walker (1832-1919) becomes the first woman to receive the Medal of Honor, for her service during the Civil War.

Inventions

The coffee percolator is invented.

Education

Higher Education: The Universities of Maine and Kentucky, Purdue University and Cornell University are all founded.

Education

Higher Education: Yale University opens the first Department of Fine Arts in the U.S.

Education

Higher Education: The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is founded.

Education

Women's Colleges: Maria Mitchell (1818-1889) is the first woman appointed as a professor of astronomy, at Vassar College.

Education

Children''s Books: Lewis Carroll''s (1832-1898) "Alice in Wonderland" is published.

Education

Children''s Books: "Hans Brinker," or "The Silver Skates" is written by Mary Mapes Dodge (1831-1905).

Education

Public Education (1865-1877): African Americans mobilize to bring public education to the South for the first time. After the Civil War, and with the legal end of slavery, African Americans in the South make alliances with white Republicans to push for many political changes, including for the first time rewriting state constitutions to guarantee free public education. In practice, white children benefit more than Black children.

Arts and Letters

Opera: Wagner’s (1813-1883) opera "Tristan and Isolde," premiers in Munich.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Jules Verne (1828-1905) writes "From the Earth to the Moon."

Jackson, Rachel

Andrew Jackson Jr. (1808-1865), Andrew and Rachel Jackson's adopted son (he was one of the pair of twins born to a sibling of Rachel Jackson), dies.

Lincoln, Mary

Assassination: President Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) is assassinated at Ford's Theatre in Washington, DC.

Johnson, Eliza

Eliza McCardle Johnson (1810-1876) is the first First Lady to teach her husband, Andrew Johnson, to read and write.

Lincoln, Mary

Mary Todd Lincoln (1818-1882) and her family move to Chicago.

Hayes, Lucy

Rutherford (1822-1893) and Lucy (1831-1889) Hayes go to Washington for his first term in Congress. The children stay in Chillicothe with their grandmother.

Harrison, Caroline

General Benjamin Harrison (1831-1901) and the 70th Indiana are mustered out of Federal service on June 8, 1865.

Economics

The Atlantic cable is completed.

Economics

The first oil pipeline is laid in Pennsylvania (6 miles).

Economics

The Union Stockyards open in Chicago.

Daily Life

The first carpet sweeper comes into popular use.

Daily Life

Transportation: George Pullman''s (1831-1897) railroad sleeping cars appear in the U.S.

Daily Life

The first fire department with paid firefighters is founded in New York City.

Sports

Billiard balls made out of a composition material replace balls made of ivory.

Sports

Boxing: Boxing's Queensbury Rules are laid out.

Sports

Women in Sports: Matthew Vassar opens Vassar College with a special School of Physical Training with classes in riding, gardening, swimming, boating, skating and "other physical accomplishments suitable for ladies to acquire ... bodily strength and grace."

Popular Culture

Another popular favorite published this year is Mark Twain's (1835-1910) short story, "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County."

Social Issues

Hate Groups: The Ku Klux Kan is founded in Tennessee.

Social Issues

Poverty: The Salvation Army is founded in England by William Booth (1829-1912).

Law

Civil Rights Movement: The Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution, prohibiting voter discrimination, is passed by the Congress.

Government

Civil Rights Movement: The Freedman’s Bureau Bill is established to provide assistance to freed slaves.

Government

American Money: Congress authorizes the issuance of the 5-cent piece, the “nickel.”

Government

Civil Rights Movement: Despite the veto of President Andrew Johnson (1808-1875), the U.S. passes a Civil Rights Law, protecting the rights of citizenship for former slaves freed by the Thirteenth Amendment.

Government

Tennessee becomes the first state readmitted to the Union.

Inventions

Dynamite is developed by Swedish engineer Alfred Nobel (1801-1872).

Inventions

Englishmen Robert Whitehead (1861-1947) invents a torpedo.

Inventions

A 12-horsepower steam automobile is developed in Connecticut.

Technology

Battery Technology: Georges Leclanche (1839-1882), a French engineer, patents a new system, which is immediately successful. In the space of two years, twenty thousand of his cells are being used in the telegraph system.

Technology

Airplanes: The Aeronautical Society is founded in England.

Education

Women’s Firsts: Lucy Hobbs (1833-1910) becomes the first woman to graduate from dental school, the Ohio College of Dental Surgery.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910) writes "War and Peace."

Arts and Letters

Literature: Feodor Dostoevsky (1821-1881) writes "Crime and Punishment."

Van Buren, Hannah

John Van Buren (1810-1866), son of Martin and Hannah Van Buren dies October 13 of kidney failure while at sea.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy Hayes (1831-1889) returns to Chillicothe in March; the older boys study German.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy and Rutherford Hayes’s fifth son, George Crook (1864-1866), dies of scarlet fever on May 24 at the age of 20 months.

Economics

The first refrigerated railroad car is built in Detroit.

Economics

Laying of the second Atlantic cable is completed.

Economics

American Money: National Bank Notes, backed by U.S. government securities, becomes predominant.

Daily Life

The first Young Women’s Christian Association (YWCA) opens in Boston.

Sports

Women in Sports: Baseball: Vassar College fields the first two women''s amateur baseball teams.

Religion

An early congregation of Reform Jews builds the Plum Street Temple in Cincinnati, Ohio.

Social Issues

Jim Crow Laws: The former Confederate States enact "Black code" (later known as Jim Crow) laws to counteract the thirteenth amendment.

Reform

Labor Movement: The National Labor Union is founded in Baltimore, the first such industrial trade-union confederation and a landmark in the U.S. labor movement.

Reform

Animal Rights Movement: The American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals is founded in New York City.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, Martha Coffin Pelham Wright, Lucretia Mott, and Ernestine Rose found the American Equal Rights Association, seeking both black and women’s suffrage.

Government

The Dominion of Canada is established by The British North America Act.

Government

Education: The federal Office of Education is established to provide information on the condition of education in the United States.

Government

New State: Nebraska becomes the 37th state of the Union.

Government

Alaska is purchased from Russia for the sum of $7.2 million, approximately two cents an acre.

Medicine

Lister (1827-1912) publishes "Antiseptic Principle of the Practice of Surgery," based partly on Pasteur's work.

Inventions

Barbed wire is first patented by Lucien B. Smith of Ohio.

Inventions

Joseph Monier (1823-1906) of Paris first patents reinforced concrete.

Inventions

Elizabeth Hawks receives a patent for a stove with a separate “air chamber” for baking.

Inventions

The first motorcycle is invented.

Inventions

Christopher Sholes (1819-1890) invents the first practical and modern typewriter.

Education

Higher Education: The first U.S. dental school is established at Harvard.

Education

Higher Education: Howard University, the first predominantly Negro college to offer comprehensive university facilities, is chartered.

Education

Special Education: The Clark Institute for Deaf Mutes is chartered; it is the first U.S. school to teach the deaf using German principles of articulation and lip-reading.

Arts and Letters

Drama: Henrik Ibsen (1828-1906) writes "Peer Gynt."

Arts and Letters

Opera: Charles Gounod’s (1818-1893) opera, "Romeo et Juliette," is performed in Paris.

Arts and Letters

Walt Whitman (1819-1992) circulates this fourth edition as four separately paginated books stitched together between two covers: a vastly re-edited version of the 1860 "Leaves of Grass," a reissue of "Drum-Taps," a reissue of the "Sequel to Drum-Taps," and a striking coda called "Songs Before Parting."

Ideas

"Das Kapital" is published by Karl Marx (1818-1883).

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy and Rutherford Hayes’s first and only daughter, Fannie (1867-1950), is born in Cincinnati on September 2.

Hayes, Lucy

Rutherford B. Hayes (1822-1893) resigns his seat in Congress, runs for Governor of Ohio, and wins by less than 3,000 votes.

Harrison, Caroline

Benjamin Harrison (1831-1901) runs for Governor of Indiana; is defeated by the Democrats.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: The first elevated railroad is built in New York City.

Economics

The first paperback books are published in Leipzig, Germany.

Discovery

Diamond fields are discovered in South Africa.

Discovery

Gold is discovered in Wyoming.

Daily Life

Magazines: Mary Louise Booth (1831-1889) becomes editor of the new "Harper’s Bazaar" magazine.

Sports

Horse Racing: The Belmont Stakes horserace is run for the first time in New York.

Sports

Women in Sports: Golf: St. Andrew''s in Scotland is the first ladies golf club.

Popular Culture

“The Blue Danube Waltz” is written by Johann Strauss II (1825-1899).

Popular Culture

The first of the popular “rags to riches” stories, "Ragged Dick," or "Street Life in New York" is published by Horatio Alger.

Religion

Children’s Books: Religious books for children are often more attractively produced, and also much gentler, even sentimental, in religious messages like "The Pretty Village."

Social Issues

Native Americans: Reservations in Indian Territory (now Oklahoma) are set up by Congress for the Five Civilized Tribes (Cherokees, Chickasaws, Choctaws, Creeks, and Seminoles).

Social Issues

Native Americans: The Treaty of Medicine Lodge between the U.S. and the Cheyenne and Arapaho forces the two tribes to move to a reservation in Indian Territory, on land that was ceded by Indian tribes to the U.S. after the end of the Civil War.

Reform

Civil Rights Movement: Congress gives blacks the right to vote in Washington, D.C.

Law

Native Americans: A clause in the 14th Amendment “excluding Indians not taxed” prevents Native-American men from receiving the right to vote.

Law

Civil Rights Movement: The Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution, prohibiting states from infringing on the rights of American citizens is ratified by two-thirds of the states and added to the Constitution.

Politics

Ulysses S. Grant (1822-1885) is elected as the 18th President of the United States, and the first from Ohio; Schuyler Colfax (1823-1885) is elected as the nation's 17th Vice President.

Politics

Impeachment: Current President Andrew Johnson (1808-1875) is impeached by the House of Representatives, but escapes conviction by one vote.

Government

Civil Rights Movement: Congress makes black suffrage mandatory for a Confederate state to be readmitted to the Union.

Science

A Cro-Magnon skeleton (the first homo sapiens) is found in France.

Inventions

The air brake is invented by George Westinghouse (1846-1914).

Inventions

An electric voting machine is patented by Thomas Edison (1847-1931).

Inventions

George Westinghouse (1846-1914) invents the compressed air locomotive brake, which enables trains to be stopped with fail-safe accuracy.

Inventions

Railroad History: Major Eli Janney (1831 – 1912), a confederate veteran of the civil war, invents the knuckle coupler. This semi-automatic device locks upon the cars closing together without the rail worker getting between the cars.

Technology

Airplanes: Jean-Marie Le Bris (1817-1872) tests an improved version of his glider, making several unmanned glides before it crashes.

Technology

Airplanes: John Stringfellow, England, proposes a man-carrying triplane, similar to Henson’s aerial steam carriage. It captures the public’s imagination, although the model does not perform well when tested.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Louisa May Alcott (1832-1888) writes "Little Women."

Arts and Letters

Brahams’ (1833-1897) “Lullaby” is published.

Lane, Harriet

James Buchanan (1791-1868), 15th President of the U.S. and the only bachelor to be elected President, dies June 1 at Wheatland (near Lancaster, Pennsylvania).

Lincoln, Mary

Mary Todd Lincoln (1818-1882) travels to Europe with her son, Tad.

Hayes, Lucy

Rutherford B. Hayes (1822-1893) is inaugurated as Governor of Ohio in January. His salary is $4,000.

Economics

The Armour meat-packing factory is opened in Chicago.

Daily Life

The world's first traffic lights, built near London's Parliament Square, begin operation.

Sports

The first recorded bicycle race is held in Paris.

Sports

Golf: Golf''s first recorded hole-in-one is scored in Scotland.

Sports

The game of badminton is invented in England.

Sports

The sport of skating is regulated at a meeting of an American skating congress in Pittsburgh.

Sports

The first indoor track and field meet is held in New York City.

Religion

Brigham Young (1801-1877) marries his 27th and final wife.

Religion

“O Little Town of Bethlehem” is written by Episcopal clergyman Phillips Brooks (1835-1893).

Social Issues

Immigration: Japanese laborers arrive in Hawaii to work in sugar cane fields.

Reform

Labor Movement: The first 8-hour day begins for government workers. Others continue to work long hours.

Law

Women’s Firsts: Arabella Mansfield (1846-1911) is granted admission to practice law in Iowa, making her the first woman lawyer.

Law

In "Texas v. White," the U.S. Supreme Court rules that secession is illegal. Following this decision, Congress restores a republican government in Texas.

Law

The Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution, affirming the right to vote and forbidding states to deny that right based on race, color, or "previous condition of servitude," is passed by Congress.

Politics

Third Parties: The National Prohibition Party is formed in Chicago.

Government

The first Black U.S. diplomat, Ebenezer D. Bassett (1833-1908), becomes minister-resident to Haiti.

Government

Ulysses S. Grant (1822-1885) is inaugurated as the 18th President of the United States, and Schuyler Colfax (1823-1885) is inaugurated as the nation's 17th Vice President.

Government

Stamps: First U.S. pictorial stamps appear; this is the first time that U.S. stamps show something other than a dead person.

Inventions

Railroad History: George Westinghouse (1846-1914), an inventive Civil War veteran, develops the straight air brake.

Inventions

Ives W. McGaffey of Chicago patents an early suction type vacuum cleaner.

Inventions

Celluloid is invented by J.W. Hyatt.

Inventions

Chewing gum is patented by William F. Semple.

Inventions

Margarine is patented in France.

Education

Education of Women: Three women are admitted to the Chicago Medical College.

Education

Children’s Books: A beautiful Victorian illustrated "Cinderella" is published, along with a new versification of the story by Robert Willis, as "The Children''s Christmas Annual for 1869."

Arts and Letters

American Theatre: There are 21 theatres in New York and 6 in Boston.

Ideas

John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) writes "On the Subjugation of Women."

Pierce, Jane

Franklin Pierce (1804-1869), the 14th president of the United States, dies October 8 in Concord, New Hampshire.

Hayes, Lucy

Rutherford B. Hayes (1822-1893) runs for a second term as Governor of Ohio and is once again elected. Lucy Hayes (1831-1889) continues her role as First Lady of Ohio.

Grant, Julia

Julia Dent Grant (1826-1902) is the first President's wife to have the Inaugural Ball in the Treasury. She also had the first closets built in the White House, and was the first First Lady to close the White House grounds to the public.

Johnson, Eliza

Robert Johnson (1834-1869), son of Andrew and Eliza Johnson, dies April 22 by taking his own life.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: The first trans-continental railroad is finished when the Central Pacific and Union Pacific railroads are joined on May 10.

Economics

The Suez Canal is opened, after more than 10 years of construction.

Economics

Gypsy moths are brought to Massachusetts to start a silk industry. They escape, however, and cause all kinds of problems around the country.

Economics

Transportation: The clipper ship, "Cutty Sark," is launched.

Sports

Soccer: Intercollegiate football (soccer) is begun by Rutgers and Princeton.

Sports

The first professional baseball team, the Cincinnati Red Stockings, is founded.

Sports

Women in Sports: Frenchwomen enter cycling races at Bordeaux, France.

Popular Culture

Mark Twain (1835-1910) publishes his book "Innocents Abroad."

Religion

The first Vatican Council meets in Rome.

Social Issues

Native Americans: The Transcontinental Railroad cuts across Native American lands.

Reform

Temperance Movement: The National Temperance Convention meets in Chicago to form the Prohibition Party.

Reform

Women’s Firsts: Arabella Mansfield (1846-1911) is granted admission to practice law in Iowa, making her the first woman lawyer.

Reform

Women's Suffrage Movement: Susan B. Anthony founds the American Women’s Suffrage Association. The newspaper she founds has the slogan “Men, their rights and nothing more; women, their rights and nothing less.”

Reform

Women's Suffrage Movement: The Wyoming Territory becomes the first state to grant women suffrage.

Law

Civil Rights Movement: The Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution affirming the right to vote and forbidding states to deny that right based on race, color, or "previous condition of servitude," is ratifiedby two-thirds of the states and added to the Constitution.

Politics

Hiram Revels (1827-1901) (Mississippi) becomes the first Black elected to U.S. Senate.

Politics

Jefferson Long (1836-1901) (Georgia) becomes the first Black elected to U.S. House of Representatives.

Government

The U.S. Congress readmits Texas to the Union.

Government

The U.S. Justice Department is created.

Government

Congress authorizes the registration of trademarks.

Medicine

Louis Pasteur (1822- 1895) and Robert Koch (1843-1910) establish the germ theory of disease.

Inventions

Thomas Edison (1847-1931) invents the stock ticker.

Inventions

Mary Carpenter patents a sewing machine with a self-threading, self-setting needle.

Technology

Construction of the Brooklyn Bridge begins.

Technology

Airplanes: Alphonse Penaud (1850-1880), France, uses twisted rubber bands to power a miniature helicopter. It’s copied by dozens of toymakers in Europe in America.

Education

Education of Women: The first sorority: Kappa Alpha Theta, is established at De Pauw University.

Education

Education of Women: Ada H. Kepley (1847-1925) becomes the first woman to graduate from law school (at Union College of Law, Chicago).

Arts and Letters

Museums: The Metropolitan Museum of Art is founded in New York City.

Lincoln, Mary

Congress appropriates a pension for Mary Todd (1818-1882) Lincoln of $3,000, later raised to $5,000.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy Hayes (1831-1889) and Rutherford (1822-1893) successfully campaign for official Ohio state support for the establishment of a home for children orphaned by the Civil War.

Economics

Standard Oil Co. of Ohio is incorporated, with John D. Rockefeller (1839-1937) as president and majority stockholder.

Economics

Census: The U.S. population is 39.8 million, including, for the first time, African Americans listed by name.

Economics

The Great Atlantic and Pacific Tea Co. (the A&P) is founded.

Discovery

Heinrich Schliemann (1822-1890) begins excavations on the site of Homer's Troy.

Daily Life

A donkey first appears in a cartoon to symbolize the U.S. Democratic Party.

Daily Life

The Marcel wave becomes a popular women’s hairstyle.

Popular Culture

Jules Verne (1828-1905) writes "Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea."

Religion

The first Vatican Council declares the dogma of papal infallibility.

Reform

Abolition Movement: The American Anti-Slavery Society is dissolved.

Reform

Black Suffrage Movement: The 15th Amendment of the Constitution provides African-American males with the right to vote.

Government

The first Civil Service Commission is appointed by President Grant.

Science

Charles Darwin (1809-1882) writes "The Descent of Man," in which he asserts that all mammals descend from a single ancestor.

Medicine

The bacillus that causes leprosy is discovered.

Inventions

The first cable car is invented.

Technology

Airplanes: Alphonse Penaud (1850-1880) builds a planophore, a 20-inch long monoplane with a pusher propeller powered by a rubber band. It flies 131 feet in 11 seconds — the first flight of an inherently stable aircraft.

Technology

Airplanes: Francis Herbert Wenham and John Browning, England, invent the wind tunnel. They use it to prove that cambered wings produce more lift than other shapes.

Education

Children’s Books: Mother Goose is reprinted, with verses set to music.

Education

Parochial Education: The Archdiocese of New York receives $700,000 in public funds for schooling.

Education

Public Education: Michigan, New Hampshire, and Washington enact compulsory school attendance laws.

Arts and Letters

Opera: "Aida," by Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901), is performed in Cairo, where the opera is set; it is written in honor of the opening of the Suez Canal.

Arts and Letters

Literature: George Eliot (1819-1880) writes "Middlemarch."

Arts and Letters

Literature: Henry James’ (1843-1916) first novel, "Watch And Ward", is written as he travela through Venice and Paris.

Ideas

Marx’s (1818-1883) "Communist Manifesto" appears for the first time in English.

Lincoln, Mary

Mary Todd Lincoln (1818-1882) returns to the United States. Her son Thomas (1853-1871) dies of tuberculosis at age 18.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy Hayes’s sixth son, Scott Russell (1871-1923), is born in Columbus, Ohio on February 8. His sister Fanny calls him “little boy sister.”

Mckinley, Ida

Katherine "Katie" McKinley (1871-1875), the first child of William and Ida McKinley, is born December 25.

Arthur, Ellen

Ellen Herndon "Nell" Arthur (Pinkerton) (1871-1915), daughter of Chester Alan and Ellen Arthur, is born November 21.

Tyler, Julia

Julia Tyler Spencer (1849-1871), daughter of John Tyler and his second wife Julia, dies May 8 from childbirth complications.

Economics

The S.S. Oceanic, the first of the White Star Line luxury liners, is launched.

Daily Life

Disasters: The Chicago Fire burns down about three and one half miles of the city.

Sports

The National Rifle Association is founded by Union Army officers

Sports

Women in Sports: Miss Carrie A. Moore demonstrates a variety of roller skating movements at the Occidental Rink in San Francisco. Later in the same day, she exhibits her skill on a velocipede.

Popular Culture

“The Greatest Show on Earth”—P.T. Barnum’s (1810-1891) circus—opens in Brooklyn, NY.

Popular Culture

Lewis Carroll (1832-1898) writes "Through the Looking Glass."

Popular Culture

The poem, “The Owl and the Pussycat” is written by Edward Lear (1812-1888).

Religion

The hymn “Onward Christian Soldiers” is composed.

Social Issues

Native Americans: The Indian Appropriation Act is passed by Congress, making Native Americans wards of the federal government.

Reform

Labor Movement: Labor unions are legalized in Britain.

Politics

President Ulysses S. Grant (1822-1885) is elected for a second term, and Henry Wilson (1812-1875) is elected as the nation's 18th Vice President.

Politics

Third Parties; Women's Firsts: The Equal Rights Party nominates Victoria Woodhull (1838-1927) as the first woman candidate for President and African American leader Frederick Douglass (1817-1895) as her running mate.

Government

Presidents: Calvin Coolidge (1872-1933), 30th President of the United States, is born in Plymouth, Vermont.

Government

Congress abolishes the income tax it had imposed during the Civil War.

Science

Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) shows that fermentation is caused by microorganisms.

Science

Bacteriology is established as a science.

Science

"Popular Science Monthly" begins to be published.

Inventions

The doughnut cutter is patented by John F. Blondel of Maine.

Inventions

A crude forerunner of the movie projector—the “zoopraxiscope”—is invented.

Inventions

African American Inventors: Elijah McCoy (1843-1929) invents an oiling devise that allows machines to be oiled while in motion.

Education

Public Education: Connecticut enacts compulsory school attendance laws.

Education

Parochial Education: About 30,000 children attend Lutheran parochial schools.

Education

Public Education: The Tileston Normal School is opened in Wilmington, NC as one of the first free schools in the area open to poor students.

Education

Children’s Books: Christina Rossetti (1830-1894) writes a books of shorter verses for young children entitled "Sing-Song."

Arts and Letters

Painting: James Whistler (1834-1903) paints a portrait of his mother.

Ideas

The Granger Movement is formed, a forerunner of the populist movement of the 1890s.

Wilson, Edith

Edith Bolling Galt (1872-1961), future second wife of President Woodrow Wilson (1856–1924), is born in Wytheville, Virginia on October 15.

Economics

Montgomery Ward opens in Chicago.

Economics

Railroad History: George Westinghouse (1846-1914) patents the first automatic air brake. This is basically the same system as is used by today's railroads.

Daily Life

Yellowstone, the world's first National Park, is opened.

Daily Life

Disasters: The American ship "Mary Celeste" is found abandoned in the Atlantic en route to Genoa.

Daily Life

The Brooklyn Bridge is opened.

Sports

Soccer: The first English Football Association (F.A.) Cup final is played at the Kennington Oval in London.

Sports

Soccer: The first international soccer game is held when England plays Scotland.

Sports

The first U.S. ski club is founded in New Hampshire.

Religion

The International Bible Students Association, which evolved into the Jehovah’s Witness religious sect, is founded.

Social Issues

Birth Control: The “Comstock Law” forbids the transport of contraceptives in the United States.

Reform

Women's Suffrage Movement: Susan B. Anthony (1820-1906) and other feminists are arrested for trying to vote in the presidential election.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: Congress guarantees equal pay for equal work in federal jobs.

Politics

The American Granger movement, which organizes U.S. farmers in the midwest to counter monopolistic transportation practices by the railroads, reaches its peak membership.

Government

The North West Mounted Police are formed in Canada, later to become the Royal Canadian Mounted Police.

Government

President Ulysses S. Grant (1822-1885) is inaugurated for a second term, and Henry Wilson (1812-1875) is inaugurated as the nation's 18th Vice President.

Science

The American Metrological Society, the first organization to improve the system of weights and measures, is formed.

Science

Astronomer Maria Mitchell (1818-1889) founds the Association for the Advancement of Women.

Medicine

Dr. Mary Jane Safford (1834-1891) joins the faculty of the newly opened Boston University School of Medicine as a professor of women’s diseases.

Inventions

African American Inventors: Lewis Latimer (1848-1928) invents a water closet (toilet system) for railroad cars.

Technology

The first color photographs are developed.

Education

Author Sarah Chauncey Woolsey, a.k.a. Susan Coolidge (1835-1905), revolutionizes school story books by blending imaginary and real-life episodes.

Education

Public Education: William T. Harris (1835-1909), Superintendent of the St. Louis school system, incorporates kindergarten into the schools

Education

The discipline of sociology is established with Herbert Spencer’s (1820-1903) "The Study of Sociology."

Education

Libraries: Chicago Public Library opens.

Education

Women’s Colleges: The College of Notre Dame of Maryland is founded.

Education

Women’s Firsts: Ellen Swallow Richards (1842–1911), the first woman to be admitted to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, earns her B.S. degree. She becomes the first female professional chemist in the U.S.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Mark Twain (1835-1910) and Charles Dudley Warner (1829-1900) write "The Gilded Age;" the phrase becomes a descriptor for the era.

Ideas

“Set theory” in mathematics is established.

Hayes, Lucy

His second term as Governor over, Lucy (1831-1889) and Rutherford B. Hayes (1822-1881) move to Spiegel Grove, an estate in N.W. Ohio.

Hayes, Lucy

Manning Force Hayes (1873-1874), seventh son of Lucy and Rutherford B. Hayes, is born on August 1.

Mckinley, Ida

Ida McKinley (1873), daughter of William and Ida McKinley, is born April 1 and dies 4 months later in August. After the birth of her namesake, First Lady Ida McKinley is stricken with a litany of lifelong illnesses that included epileptic seizures and phlebitis.

Economics

Jay Cooke & Co.'s Wall Street banking house fails, and the American economy collapses into a sharp depression.

Economics

American Money: The U.S. goes on the gold standard, eliminating all silver currency.

Economics

E. Remington & Sons, gunmakers, begin to manufacture typewriters.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The New York "Daily Graphic" becomes the first illustrated daily newspaper.

Daily Life

San Francisco’s first cable streetcar goes into operation.

Daily Life

Crime and Punishment: Jesse James and his gang rob their first passenger train.

Sports

Football: The first American Football rules are formulated at a meeting in New York attended by delegates from Columbia, Princeton, Rutgers and Yale.

Sports

The modern game of lawn tennis is invented in England.

Sports

Women in Sports: 10 young women compete in a mile-long swimming contest in the Harlem River. Miss Deliliah Goboess wins the prize, a silk dress worth $175.

Popular Culture

Jules Verne publishes "Around the World in Eighty Days."

Religion

The Reform Union of Hebrew Congregations is organized in Cincinnati.

Law

Chief Justices: President U.S. Grant (1822-1885) nominates Morrison R. Waite (1816-1888) as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. He is confirmed two days later and serves for fourteen years.

Government

Presidents: Herbert Hoover (1875-1964), 31st President of the United States, is born in West Branch, Iowa.

War

Federal troops stationed in New Orleans during Reconstruction quell a revolt led by the White League against Louisiana's black state government.

Medicine

The streptococci and staphylococci bacilli are discovered.

Medicine

The field of osteopathy is founded in Kansas; Dr. Andrew Still becomes its first practitioner.

Inventions

African American Inventors: Lewis H. Latimer (1848-1928) co-invents an improved water closet, or bathroom, for trains.

Technology

The process of pressure cooking is introduced as a method of canning foods.

Technology

Airplanes: Felix Du Temple builds a man-carrying steam-powered monoplane. With a young French sailor at the controls, it makes a ski-jump take-off and a brief hop but cannot sustain flight.

Education

The Chautauqua movement begins in an effort to bring greater educational opportunity to America's isolated farmers and small towns through traveling lectures and correspondence-school courses.

Arts and Letters

Painting: A group of French Impressionists, including Claude Monet, Paul Cezanne, Edgar Degas, Edouard Manet, Camille Pissaro, and August Renoir, hold their first show. Rejected by a formal gallery, the exhibit was held by the artists themselves.

Fillmore, Abigail

Millard Fillmore (1800-1874), 13th president of the United States, dies on March 8 in Buffalo, NY. He is only the second vice president to succeed on the death of the incumbent president.