Politics

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) is elected the 3rd President of the U.S. and Aaron Burr (1756-1836) is elected the 3rd Vice President.

Government

National Capital: Washington, DC is established as the capital of the United States; Congress meets there for the first time.

Government

The U.S. Congress passes the first bankruptcy law; founding father Robert Morris is released from debtors’ prison.

Government

Spain cedes the Louisiana territory to France.

Government

Congress divides the Northwest Territory into two territories, Indiana and Ohio.

Government

Presidents: Millard Fillmore (1800-1874), 13th President of the U.S., is born in Locke Township (now Summerhill), New York.

Science

William Herschel (1738-1822) discovers infrared light.

Medicine

Benjamin Waterhouse (1754-1846) gives the first smallpox vaccination in the U.S. to his son.

Medicine

Humphry Davy (1778-1829) announces the anaesthetic properties of nitrous oxide.

Inventions

Railroad History: Oliver Evans (1755-1819), an American, creates the earliest successful non-condensing high pressure stationary steam-engine

Inventions

Alessandro Volta (1745-1827) invents the electric battery.

Inventions

An iron-framed printing press is invented by Charles Stanhope (1753-1816), thus allowing large sheet printing.

Technology

Battery Technology: By 1800 Volta (1745-1827) had created the "crown of cups", a modified arrangement of zinc and silver discs dipped in a salt solution.

Education

Libraries: The Library of Congress is proposed by John Adams.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: William Wordsworth (1770-1850) begins the period known as European Romanticism.

Arts and Letters

Parson Weems (1759-1825) writes "The Life of Washington," creating a number of myths about the first American president.

Arts and Letters

C.B. Brown (1771-1810) publishes "Arthur Mervyn," a realistic description of the yellow fever epidemic in Philadelphia that took the lives of Dolley Madison’s husband and infant son.

Adams, Abigail

John Adams (1735-1826) and Abigail Adams (1744-1818) are the first U.S. President and First Lady to actually live in the new capital, Washington, DC. Abigal is also the first wife of a president to live in the White House.

Adams, Abigail

Charles Adams (1770-1800), son of Abigail and John Adams, dies at age 30 of cirrhosis of the liver.

Harrison, Anna

Lucy Singleton Harrison Este (1800-1826), daughter of William Henry and Anna Harrison, is born in September.

Fillmore, Abigail

Abigail Powers' (1898-1853) father, a Baptist minister named Lemuel Powers, dies when she is two.

Economics

Population: The population of Washington, DC is 2,464 free citizens and 623 slaves.

Economics

Population: The second national census puts the U.S. population at 5.3 million, including more than 800,000 slaves.

Economics

William Young of Philadelphia is the first American shoemaker to make different shoes for the left and right feet.

Daily Life

Fireboats are in use in New York harbor.

Sports

Boxing: Bill Richmond (1763-1829), a former slave, becomes one of the first popular boxers.

Popular Culture

Mount Vernon Gardens becomes the site of the first summer theatre in the U.S.

Popular Culture

U.S. Marine Band gives its first concert near the future site of the Lincoln Memorial.

Religion

John Chapman (1774-1845) (Johnny Appleseed) begins spreading religious tracts and apple seeds in pioneer communities in the midwest.

Religion

The Church of the United Brethren in Christ is founded in the U.S.

Religion

The Boston Female Society for Missionary Purposes is founded to fund the education of missionaries, initially male, but later also female.

Social Issues

Slavery: A slave named Gabriel Prosser (1775-1800), believing himself called by God, organizes a plot to kill all whites in Virginia, sparing only Quakers, Methodists, and French. The conspirators meet under the pretense of holding religious meetings.

Reform

Utopian Movement: Robert Owen (1771-1858) takes over New Lanark mills in Scotland and begins social reforms there.

Reform

Elizabeth Peck Perkins (1735?-1807) founds the Boston Female Asylum, the first charitable institution for women there.

Law

Chief Justices: President John Adams (1735-1826) nominates John Marshall (1755-1835) as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. He serves for 34 years, longer than any other Chief Justice.

Government

Great Britain and Ireland unite, creating the United Kingdom; its flag is the Union Jack.

Government

National Capital: Congress takes jurisdiction over the District of Columbia.

Government

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) and Aaron Burr (1756-1836) are inaugurated as the 3rd President and Vice President of the U.S.

Government

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) presents his first annual message to Congress in writing.

War

North African War: The North African state of Tripoli declares war on the United States to compel the young nation to pay tribute to commerce-raiding Arab corsairs.

Science

The first asteroid is discovered by Italian monk and professor of astronomy Giussepe Piazzi (1746-1826).

Science

J.J. Lalande (1732-1807) catalogues 47,300 stars.

Science

Lamarck (1744-1829) develops a classification system for invertebrate animals.

Inventions

Robert Fulton (1765-1815), civil engineer, produces the first submarine, “Nautilis.”

Inventions

Richard Trevithick (1771-1833) invents the first steam powered locomotive (designed for roads).

Education

Catholic Education: The first Roman Catholic school in New York is established.

Education

Libraries: The Library of Congress is established by a vote of the Congress.

Education

The Royal College of Surgeons is founded in London.

Arts and Letters

In France Napoleon opened the Louvre to the public.

Ideas

German philosopher Friedrich von Schelling (1755-1829) writes "System of Transcendental Idealism," a treatise on the philosophy of nature, which influences the development of Romanticism in Europe.

Adams, Abigail

John (1735-1826) and Abigail (1744-1818) Adams retire to Braintree.

Madison, Dolley

James Madison (1751-1836) becomes Secretary of State and the Madisons move to the new capital, Washington, DC. Dolley Madison (1768-1849) finds herself a social leader in the city.

Madison, Dolley

Dolley Madison (1768-1849) becomes an unofficial White House hostess for Jefferson, whose wife, Martha, died in 1782.

Madison, Dolley

James Madison’s father dies; Madison inherits Montpelier.

Adams, Louisa

George Washington Adams (1801-1829), son of President John Quincy Adams and Louisa Adams, is born April 12.

Monroe, Elizabeth

J.S Monroe (1799-1801), the only son of President James Monroe and Elizabeth Monroe, dies on September 28 at age two. Cause of death is unknown.

Economics

Great Britain’s first complete census finds the population at 11 million, one quarter of it urban.

Discovery

Mastodon fossils are discovered on a New York farm, the first such fossils of the extinct mammal.

Discovery

Lewis and Clark: Lewis (1774-1811) is asked by President Jefferson (1743-1826) to be his secretary-aide.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The New York "Evening Post" is first published.

Religion

The “Plan of Union” permits Congregationalists and Presbyterian ministers to serve in each other’s churches, thus helping to spread Protestantism to frontier communities.

Religion

Catholics are excluded from voting in the United Kingdom and Ireland.

Government

National Capitol: Congress passes an act calling for the establishment of a library within the U.S. capitol.

Government

Georgia cedes her western lands to the U.S., the last of the original states to do so.

War

Revolutionary War: The U.S. and Great Britain settle Revolutionary War claims for $2,664,000.

Science

Samuel Hutton explains the natural processes involved in changes in the earth’s crust.

Science

The role of capillaries in pumping blood is explained by Scottish physicist John Leslie.

Science

John Dalton (1766-1844) introduces atomic theory into chemistry.

Science

The term “biology” is coined by German naturalist Gottfried Treviranus (1776-1837).

Medicine

James Smith opens a clinic in Maryland that offers free smallpox vaccinations to the poor.

Education

Higher Education: The U.S. Military Academy at West Point is founded.

Education

Libraries: The Library of Congress issues its first catalog: total holdings, 964 volumes and 9 maps.

Education

Libraries: John Beckley (1757-1807) becomes the first Librarian of Congress; he is paid $2/day.

Ideas

Education of Women: German feminist Amalie Holst publishes "On the Capacity of Women for Higher Education."

Ideas

Daniel Webster (1782-1852) writes "The Rights of Neutral Nations in Time of War."

Washington, Martha

Martha Dandridge Custis Washington (1731-1802) dies of “severe fever” on May 22 at Mt. Vernon.

Harrison, Anna

William Henry Harrison (1802-1838), son of William Henry and Anna Harrison, is born September 3.

Economics

Merino sheep are imported to the U.S. from Spain.

Discovery

Matthew Flinders (1744-1814) lands on a 96-mile-long island south-west of Adelaide and slaughtered 31 kangaroos for a feast. This 3rd largest island off Australia was thus named Kangaroo Island.

Sports

Horse Racing: New York State prohibits public horse races, only allowing them at private jockey clubs.

Popular Culture

The first comic book, "The Wasp," is published.

Popular Culture

The first chess book, "Chess Made Easy," is published in Philadelphia.

Religion

"The Genius of Christianity," by Chateaubriand (1768-1848), attempts to answer the attacks of the Enlightenment by stressing its role in the growth of European culture.

Reform

Labor Movement: The first important labor law protecting children is passed in Great Britain.

Law

In "Marbury v. Madison," the U.S. Supreme Court declares a law passed by Congress to be unconstitutional, thereby establishing the principle of judicial review.

Law

The Twelfth Amendment to the Constitution, providing for separate ballots for President and Vice President, is passed by Congress.

Government

New State: Ohio becomes the 17th state in the U.S. on March 1.

Government

Land from the Gulf of Mexico to the northwest, and including Louisiana and New Orleans, is purchased from France for $27 million; the U. S. Senate ratifies the Louisiana Purchase.

Science

John Dalton (1766-1844) arranges the atomic elements in a periodic table for the first time.

Science

John James Audubon (1785-1851) does the first banding of wild American birds.

Medicine

A detailed description of hemophilia is published by Pennsylvania physician John C. Otto (1774-1844).

Medicine

German pharmacist Friedrich Wilhelm Adam Serturner (1783-1841) makes morphine from opium. Physicians are delighted that opium has been tamed. Morphine is lauded for its reliability and safety.

Inventions

Robert Fulton (1765-1815) powers a boat with steam.

Education

Alexander I of Russia (1777-1825) establishes free, universal education.

Education

The Englishman, Joseph Lancaster (1778-1838) writes "Improvements in Education as it Respects the Industrious Classes." His ideas will be known as the Lancastrian Method.

Education

Education of Women: Maria Dalle Donne (1778-1842) is appointed director of midwives at the University of Bologna, often lecturing in her own home.

Monroe, Elizabeth

Maria Hester Monroe Gouverneur (1803-1850), daughter of President James Monroe and Elizabeth Monroe, is born in France. She was the first presidential child to be married in the White House.

Adams, Louisa

John Adams II (1803-1834), son of President John Quincy Adams and Louisa Adams, is born on the 4th of July.

Polk, Sarah

Sarah Childress (1803-1891), future wife of James K. Polk (1795-1849) is born on a plantation near Murfreesboro, Tennessee.

Economics

The population of India is estimated at 200 million, about the same size as all of Europe.

Discovery

Lewis and Clark: Lewis (1774-1811) is picked to be the commander of the expedition; he writes to ask William Clark (1770-1838) to join him and share command. Clark accepts.

Daily Life

Jane Aitkin (1764-1832), American printer, bookseller, and bookbinder, publishes the constitution of the Philadelphia Female Association.

Religion

Missionary Peter Cartwright (1785-1872) begins 50 years of circuit riding and preaching on the American frontier.

Social Issues

Native Americans: Louisiana Purchase brings a greater number of trading posts into Indian Territory.

Social Issues

Slavery: Ohio is admitted to the Union as a free state.

Social Issues

Slavery: Denmark becomes the first country to ban slave trade.

Law

The Twelfth Amendment to the Constitution, providing for separate ballots for President and Vice President, is ratified by two-thirds of the states and added to the Constitution.

Politics

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) is re-elected President of the U.S., and George Clinton (1739-1812) is elected as the 4th Vice President of the U.S.

Government

Napoleon Bonaparte (1869-1821) is crowned Emperor of France.

Government

Presidents: Franklin Pierce (1804-1869), 14th President of the U.S., is born in Hillsborough (now Hillsboro), New Hampshire.

War

North African War: Barbary pirates in Tripoli seize and hold the U.S. frigate Philadelphia; Stephen Decatur (1779-1820) and a small group of men destroy it.

Inventions

Railroad History: Matthew Murray of Leeds (1765-1826) , England invents a steam locomotive which runs on timber rails. This is probably the FIRST RAILROAD ENGINE.

Inventions

Railroad History: Richard Trevithick (1771-1833) of Cornwall builds 40 psi steam locomotive for the Welsh Penydarran Railroad.

Technology

John C. Stevens (c.1748-1838) builds a screw-driven boat.

Technology

A method of canning food is developed.

Technology

Shrapnel, named after British soldier Henry Shrapnel (1761-1842), is used for the first time by the British in a war with the Dutch in Africa.

Technology

Airplanes: Sir George Cayley (1773-1857), England, builds a miniature glider with a single wing and a movable tail mounted on a universal joint. It also has a movable weight to adjust the center of gravity. It is the first recorded fixed-wing aircraft of any size capable of flight.

Education

The first Board of Education in New York City comes into being.

Education

Libraries: “Coonskin Libraries” come into being in Marietta, Ohio when settlers on the Ohio River barter coonskins for books from Boston merchants.

Education

Children''s Books: Ann (1782-1866) and Jane (1783-1824) Taylor of England write stories, nursery rhymes, and hymns; their best-known work is “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star.”

Arts and Letters

Beethoven’s (1770-1827) "Third Symphony" (the "Eroica") establishes the symphony as a premier form of classical music.

Jefferson, Martha

Mary "Polly" "Maria" Jefferson Eppes (1778-1804), daughter of Thomas and Martha Jefferson, dies from childbirth complications on April 17 at the age of 25.

Madison, Dolley

A portrait of Dolley Madison (1764-1849) is painted by Gilbert Stuart (1764-1849).

Harrison, Anna

John Scott Harrison (1804-1878), son of William Henry and Anna Harrison, is born October 4.

Discovery

Lewis and Clark: President Thomas Jefferson commissions Merriweather Lewis (1774-1809) and William Clark (1770-1838) to explore the newly acquired Louisiana Territory and begin their journey; Sacajawea (1787-1812), the Shoshoni Indian wife of a French-Canadian trader, is one of their guides.

Daily Life

The first dahlias appear in England.

Daily Life

Bananas are imported from Cuba.

Sports

Women in Sports: Horse Racing: The first woman jockey was Alicia Meynell of England. She first competed in a four-mile race in York, England.

Social Issues

Slavery: Ohio passes black laws to deter runaway slaves from settling in the state.

Social Issues

Slavery: In Pennsylvania, the Underground Railroad is officially established.

Social Issues

Native Americans: The Sioux and other tribes encounter the Lewis (1774-1809) and Clark (1770- 1838) expedition.

Government

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) is inaugurated for his second term as President, and George Clinton (1739-1812) is inaugurated for his first term as Vice President.

Government

The Michigan Territory is created from the northern part of the Indiana Territory.

War

Admiral Horatio Nelson (1758-1805) defeats the French in the Battle of Trafalgar, making Great Britain the leading naval power in the world.

Science

Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778-1850)proves that water is composed of two parts hydrogen and one part oxygen.

Medicine

The syndrome later called “shell shock” or “battle fatigue” is described by Richard Gallagher.

Technology

Rockets, originally constructed by Sir William Congreave (1772-1828), are reintroduced as weapons into the British army.

Technology

The first covered bridge is built in the U.S. over the Schuylkill River near Philadelphia.

Education

Public Education: New York State creates a permanent school fund.

Education

Johann Pestalozzi (1746-1827) opens his school in Yverdon, Switzerland.

Education

Public Education: New York Public School Society is formed by wealthy businessmen to provide education for poor children. Schools are run on the "Lancasterian" model, in which one "master" can teach hundreds of students in a single room. The master gives a rote lesson to the older students, who then pass it down to the younger students. These schools emphasize discipline and obedience qualities that factory owners want in their workers.

Arts and Letters

The Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts is organized.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: "The Lay of the Last Minstrel," by Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832), is the first full-length narrative poem in the Romantic tradition.

Economics

Shipping ice to Martinique in the West Indies becomes a profitable business.

Discovery

Lewis and Clark: On November 24, by majority vote, the expedition decides to cross to the south side of the Columbia River to build winter quarters.

Discovery

Lewis and Clark: The expedition reaches the three forks of the Missouri River, then on to Montana and the Columbia River, 20 miles from the Pacific Ocean.

Sports

Women in Sports: Hot Air Balloons: Madeleine Sophie Armant Blanchard solos in the first of 67 gas-powered balloon flights. She made her living as a balloonist, was appointed official Aeronaut of the Empire by Napoleon, and toured Europe until she fell to her death in an aerial fireworks display in 1819.

Sports

Women in Sports: Horse Racing: Englishwoman Alicia Meynell, riding as Mrs. Thornton, defeats a leading male jockey, Buckle, in a race.

Sports

Boxing: Tom Cribb (1781-1848), the champion of English bare-knuckle boxers, first enters the ring.

Popular Culture

Ludwig Achim von Arnim (1781-1831), German folklorist, publishes Des Knaben Wunderhorn, setting the stage for the work of the Brothers Grimm.

Religion

Slavery: Virginia allows slaves to accompany white masters to religious services presided over by white preachers.

Government

The abdication of Emperor Francis II (1768-1835) signals the end of the Holy Roman Empire.

Government

Holland becomes a kingdom ruled by Louis Bonaparte (1778-1846).

War

The British seize the colony of Capetown in Africa from the French-dominated Dutch.

Medicine

Morphine becomes the first drug to be isolated from a plant.

Technology

Coal gas is first used for lighting at Newport, Rhode Island.

Education

Noah Webster (1758-1843) publishes "The Compendious Dictionary of the English Language," which becomes the recognized authority on American English. The letters i and j and u and v are established as separate letters.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Lord Byron (1788-1824) privately publishes "Fugitive Pieces," which is immediately suppressed by the Church of England on grounds of immorality.

Jefferson, Martha

James Madison Randolph (1806-), the grandson of Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), is the first child born in the White House.

Pierce, Jane

Jane Means Appleton (1806-1863), future wife of President Franklin Pierce (1804-1869), is born March 12 in Hampton, New Hampshire.

Harrison, Anna

Benjamin Harrison (1806-1840), son of William Henry and Anna Harrison, is born.

Discovery

Lewis and Clark: January 4, President Jefferson welcomes a delegation of Missouri, Oto, Arikara, and Yankton Sioux chiefs who had met with Lewis (1774-1811) and Clark more than a year earlier.

Discovery

Lewis and Clark: March 23, Fort Clatsop is presented to the Clatsop Indian, for which it was named, and the expedition begins the journey home.

Discovery

Lewis and Clark: In the fall, Lewis (1774-1811) and Clark (1770-1838) are treated as national heroes. They return to Washington, D.C. The men receive double pay and 320 acres of land as reward, the captains get 1,600 acres. Lewis is named governor of the Louisiana Territory, Clark is made Indian agent for the West and brigadier general of the territory's militia.

Discovery

Zebulon Pike (1779-1813) identifies the Colorado peak that will eventually bear his name.

Discovery

Mungo Park’s (1771-1806) final Niger River expedition ends tragically when he and several other are attacked and killed by African tribesmen.

Sports

Horse Racing: “Yankee” becomes the first horse to trot a mile in under 3 minutes.

Politics

Scandal: Aaron Burr (1756-1836), Vice President under Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), is arrested for treason for planning to invade Mexico; he is later acquitted of all charges.

Government

In an effort to punish Great Britian for impressing American sailors, Congress passes the Embargo Act, which prohibits American vessels from landing in any foreign port without the express authorization of the President.

War

War of 1812: The U.S. frigate "Chesapeake" fires on the British man-of-war Leopard in conflict over the impressments of sailors.

Science

Potassium and sodium are discovered by Sir Humphrey Davy (1778-1829).

Science

A huge meteor lands in Connecticut.

Inventions

Isaac de Rivas makes a hydrogen gas powered vehicle - first with internal combustion power, however it is a very unsuccessful design.

Technology

London streets are lit by gas light.

Technology

Robert Fulton’s (1765-1815) paddle steamer, the Clermont, navigates on the Hudson River.

Education

Children''s Books: Charles (1775-1834) and Mary (1764-1847) Lamb publish "Tales from Shakespeare," a collection of children’s stories based on the plays.

Education

Libraries: The Athenaeum Library is founded in Boston.

Arts and Letters

Architecture: Napoleon (1769-1821) commissions the construction of the Arch de Triumphe.

Adams, Louisa

Charles Frances Adams (1807-1886), son of President John Quincy Adams and Louisa Adams, is born on August 18.

Van Buren, Hannah

Abraham Van Buren (1807-1873), son of Martin and Hannah Van Buren is born on November 27.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: The very first passenger train runs from Swansea to Mumbles in England on March 25th.

Economics

The manufacture of clocks with interchangeable parts is begun in Connecticut by Seth Thomas (1785-1859) and Eli Terry (1772-1852).

Economics

Transportation: The first steamboat with regular passenger service is instituted by Robert Fulton's Clermont (1765-1815).

Discovery

Zebulon Pike (1779-1813) leads first Anglo American expedition into New Mexico. He publishes account of way of life in New Mexico upon return to U.S.

Daily Life

Townsend Speakman 1st sells fruit-flavored carbonated drinks in Philadelphia

Daily Life

Townsend Speakman sells first fruit-flavored carbonated drinks in Philadelphia

Sports

Horse Racing: The first Ascot Gold Cup in horse racing is held in England.

Religion

The U.S. Evangelical Association, founded by Jacob Albright (1759-1808), holds its first convention.

Social Issues

Slavery: England prohibits the African slave trade.

Reform

Women's Suffrage Movement: New Jersey revokes the right of women to vote which it had granted in 1776.

Law

"The American Law Journal," America’s earliest law periodical, is published.

Politics

James Madison (1751-1836) is elected as the 4th President of the U.S., defeating Charles Pickney; George Clinton (1739-1812)is reelected as Vice President.

Government

Presidents: Andrew Johnson (1808-1875), 17th President of the U.S., is born December 29 in Raleigh, North Carolina.

Government

Slavery: The United States bans slave trade that involves importing African slaves, but smuggling continues.

Science

Sir Humphrey Davy (1778-1829) discovers the elements boron and strontium.

Inventions

Railroad History: Trevithick (1771-1833) builds a circular railway in London's Torrington Square. Steam carriage "Catch Me Who Can" weighes 10 tons and makes 15 mph.

Education

Higher Education: Andover Theological Seminary is established.

Education

Education of Women: Catholic Education: Elizabeth Seton (1774-1821) establishes a school for girls in Baltimore, Maryland.

Arts and Letters

Drama: Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1837) publishes the first section of his Romantic epic, "Faust," in Germany.

Arts and Letters

Beethoven (1770-1827) composes the "Fifth" and the "Pastoral" Symphonies.

Ideas

Women''s Rights Movement: Charles Fourier’s (1772-1837) "Theory of the Four Movements" relates social progress to the progress of women toward freedom.

Madison, Dolley

Dolley Madison (1768-1849) accompanies her husband in his campaign for the presidency, influencing many with her charm and tact.

Jackson, Rachel

Andrew Jackson Jr. (1808-1865), Andrew and Rachel Jackson's adopted son (he was one of the pair of twins born to a sibling of Rachel Jackson), is born and named after his new father.

Economics

John Jacob Astor (1763-1848) incorporates the American Fur Company with himself as the sole stockholder.

Discovery

Extensive excavations begin at Pompeii and last until 1815.

Discovery

The source of the Ganges River is discovered.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The "Times" of London sends Henry Crabb Robinson (1775-1867) as the first war correspondent to cover Napoleon’s (1769-1821) campaign in Spain.

Religion

Napoleon (1769-1821) abolishes the Inquisition in Spain and Italy.

Religion

Women''s Firsts: Jane Aitken (1764-1832) publishes the only Bible ever printed by a woman in the U.S. up to this date.

Religion

The first Bible Society is established in Philadelphia.

Government

James Madison (1751-1836)is inaugurated as the nation's fourth President and George Clinton is inaugurated as the continuing Vice President.

Government

The Illinois Territory, including what is now Wisconsin, is established.

Government

Presidents: Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865), 16th President of the U.S. is born February 12 in Hardin (now Larue) County, Kentucky.

War

Indian Wars: General William Henry Harrison (1773-1841) obtains over 3 million acres of Indian lands with the Treaty of Fort Wayne.

Science

The first detailed geological survey of the United States is published by William McClure.

Inventions

The steamboat is patented by Robert Fulton (1765-1815).

Inventions

Airplanes: The first successful glider is built in England.

Technology

Women's Firsts: The first patent given to a woman was to Mary Kies of Connecticut, for a technique for weaving straw with silk and thread.

Arts and Letters

Architecture: Neoclassicism emerges as a dominant force in British architecture with the construction of Covent Garden Theatre.

Madison, Dolley

Dolley Madison (1768-1849) becomes the first First Lady to attend her husband's inauguration and the first to host an inaugural ball.

Harrison, Anna

Mary Symmes Harrison Thornton (1809-1842), daughter of William Henry and Anna Harrison is born January 22.

Adams, Louisa

John Quincy Adams (1767-1848) is appointed American minister to Russia.

Economics

The U.S. resumes trade with all countries except Britain and France.

Economics

The "Phoenix" becomes the first sea-going steamship, traveling from New York to Philadelphia.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The first newspaper published west of the Mississippi River, the "Missouri Gazette," is published in St. Louis.

Sports

Cricket: The first cricket club is founded in Boston.

Popular Culture

Washington Irving (1783-1859) writes "Rip van Winkle."

Religion

Napoleon (1769-1821) annexes the Papal States and takes Pope Pius VII prisoner.

Religion

Elizabeth Seton (1774-1821) founds the Sisters of Charity of St. Joseph in the U.S.

Reform

The African Female Benevolent Society of Newport (RI) is founded.

Politics

Simon Bolivar (1783-1830) emerges as a major figure in South American politics.

Government

Chile declares its independence from Spain.

War

Southerners revolt against Spanish rule in West Florida; the U.S. annexes the area.

Science

John Dalton (1766-1844) publishes "New System of Chemical Philosophy," the foundation for modern chemistry.

Science

Charles Bell’s (1744-1842) "Anatomy of the Brain," studies the difference between sensory and motor nerves.

Science

Nicotine is identified and named after Jean Nicot (c.1530-1600), who sent tobacco back to France.

Medicine

The first American book on pediatrics, "The Maternal Physician," is published in Philadelphia.

Medicine

The field of homeopathy is founded by German physician Samuel Hahnemann (1755-1843) ; it is not called by this name until 1826.

Technology

Airplanes: Sir George Cayley (1773-1857) tries three times to organize an aeronautical society to study the problem of flight, but finds little interest among scientists.

Education

Yale Medical School is established.

Education

Parochial Education: Elizabeth Seton (1774-1821) and her community of sisters founds the first American Catholic parochial school in Emmitsburg, Maryland.

Education

Education of Women: German feminist and educator Betty Gleim publishes "On the Upbringing and Instruction of the Female Sex."

Arts and Letters

Literature: Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832) writes "Lady of the Lake."

Arts and Letters

The Philharmonic Society in Boston is organized by Gottlieb Graupner (1767-1836).

Arts and Letters

The San Carlo Opera House is built in Naples, Italy.

Arts and Letters

American Theatre: During this year, English stars begin to come in larger numbers to U.S.

Van Buren, Hannah

John Van Buren (1807-1873), son of Martin and Hannah Van Buren is born February 18.

Johnson, Eliza

Eliza McCardle (1810-1876), future wife of President Andrew Johnson (1808–1875), is born October 4th in Leesburg, Tennessee.

Economics

Population: The U.S. population is about 7,239,881, including 60,000 immigrants and about 1.2 million slaves; New York City becomes the largest city in the U.S.

Economics

Cornelius Vanderbilt (1794-1877) founds a ferry service between New York City and Staten Island.

Economics

The American cotton crop exceeds 175,000 bales; American cotton mills quadruple in one year to 269.

Sports

The first public billiards rooms open in London.

Sports

Boxing: Tom Molineaux (1784-1818), a freed Virginia slave and the first unofficial heavy-weight boxing champion, is defeated in the 40th round in a match in England.

Popular Culture

The first American county fair (a cattle show) is held in Pittsfield, Massachusetts.

Religion

The Cumberland Presbytery in Kentucky is excluded from the Presbyterian Church.

Religion

The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions is established, beginning a wide missionary effort in the U.S.

Social Issues

Native Americans: The Shawnee, under Tecumseh (1768-1813), begin to establish a tribal confederacy to preserve their lands and culture.

Social Issues

Abortion: Abortion is made a criminal offense in France.

Government

Scandal: U.S. Senator Timothy Pickering (1745-1829) becomes the first senator to be censured when he reveals confidential documents communicated by the President of the United States (John Adams).

Government

The Prince of Wales, later George IV (1762-1830), becomes Prince Regent of England after George III (1738-1820) is declared insane.

War

Indian Wars: William Henry Harrison (1773-1841), Governor of the Indiana Territories, defeats Indians under Tecumseh (1768-1813) at Tippecanoe, IN.

Science

Iodine is isolated by French chemist Bernard Courtois (1777-1838).

Science

William Herschel (1738-1822) suggests that a nebula is an early stage in the development of a galaxy.

Science

Mary Anning (1799-1847), British geologist, at age 12 is involved in the finding of the first identifiable icthyosaurus and later of a plesiosaur.

Medicine

Sir Charles Bell (1774-1842) writes "New Idea of the Anatomy of the Brain."

Education

Education of Women: Sarah Pierce (1767-1852), founder of the Litchfield Academy, publishes "Sketches of Universal History Compiled from Several Authors: For the Use of Schools."

Education

African American Education: Christopher McPherson (c.1763-?) , a free African American, opens a school for other free Blacks and slaves in Richmond, Virginia. Local white citizens, not only close the school as a public nuisance, but they also send him to the Williamsburg Lunatic Asylum.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Jane Austen (1775-1817) writes "Sense and Sensibility."

Taylor, Margaret

Anne Margaret Mackell Taylor Wood (1811-1875), daughter of Zachary and Margaret Taylor, is born April 9.

Adams, Louisa

Louisa Catherine Adams (1811-1812), the only daughter of John Quincy and Louisa Adams, is born.

Economics

Work begins on the Cumberland Road at Cumberland, Maryland; the road reaches Vandalia, Illinois in 1840, at a cost of $7 million, and becomes an important route for the westward expansion of the U.S.

Discovery

The eastern coast of Africa is explored by English naval captain Philip Beaver.

Daily Life

Disasters: Earthquakes beginning on December 16 cause the Mississippi River to flow upstream for several hours; the town of New Madrid, Missouri, is pushed into the river.

Sports

Women in Sports: Golf: On January 9, the first known women’s golf tournament is held at Musselburgh Golf Club, Scotland, among the town fishwives.

Sports

Competitive rowing races are popular; a race between Knickerbocker of New York City and Invincible of Long Island attracts thousands; Knickerbocker wins.

Religion

The “Great Schism” of Welsh Protestants occurs; two thirds leave the Anglican Church.

Religion

The Presbyterian Church in the U. S. formally states its support for “pious females,” who had begun organizing independent, female-run benevolent societies to support foreign and domestic missionaries, teachers, and doctors.

Reform

Labor Movement: “Luddites” destroy weaving machines in North England, trying to prevent conversion from hand looms.

Politics

James Madison (1751-1836) is re-elected to a second term as President of the U.S. and Elbridge Gerry (1744-1814) is elected the nation's 5th Vice President.

Politics

The term gerrymander is coined, meaning the practice of dividing a geographic area into voting districts in such a way that one political party is given unfair advantage in an election. The practice is named for Elbridge Gerry, who first thought of doing it, and salamander, because the original voting district resulting from the practice looked like a salamander.

Government

New State: Louisiana becomes the 18th state in the U.S.

Government

George Clinton (1729-1812), 4th Vice President of the United States, dies in office. He is not replaced until the general election in the fall, when Elbridge Gerry is elected.

War

War of 1812: The U.S. declares war on Britain.

War

War of 1812: The U.S. frigate Constitution, Old Ironsides, defeats the British ship Guerriere.

Science

Georges Couvier (1769-1832) discovers that fossils follow an increasing age sequence as one probes deeper into layers of rock and soil.

Medicine

Benjamin Rush (1745-1813) publishes "Medical Inquiries and Observation Upon the Diseases of the Mind."

Medicine

Physician James Thatcher publishes a book about rabies.

Technology

Transportation: Transportation technology is advanced by Scotsman Henry Bell (1767-1830) with his new steamboat, the three-horsepower Comet, which sails on the River Clyde.

Education

Children''s Books: The Brothers Grimm--Jacob (1785-1863) and Wilhelm (1786-1859)-- publish their "Fairy Tales," which include Tom Thumb, Little Red-Riding Hood, Bluebeard, Snow White, and Cinderella.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Lord Byron (1788-1824) writes "Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage."

Arts and Letters

The final shipment of Elgin Marbles—a group of ancient sculptures and architectural details from the Parthenon obtained from the Turks by Lord Elgin (1776-1841)—arrives in England from Greece, giving Londoners their first taste of original classical Greek art.

Ideas

German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Hegel (1770-1831) publishes "Die Objektive Logik."

Madison, Dolley

White House Wedding: At the first wedding in the White House, Dolley Madison's (1768-1849) widowed sister, Lucy Payne Washington (1777?-1846), is married to Supreme Court Justice Thomas Todd.

Adams, Louisa

Louisa Catherine Adams (1811-1812), the only daughter of John Quincy and Louisa Adams, dies in St. Petersburg, Russia.

Van Buren, Hannah

Martin Van Buren (1812-1855), son of Martin and Hannah Van Buren, is born December 20.

Harrison, Anna

Carter Bassett Harrison (1812-1839), son of William Henry and Anna Harrison, is born October 26.

Economics

The City Bank of New York opens, the forerunner of today’s Citibank.

Economics

The manufacture of lead pencils begins.

Economics

Transportation: The first steamboat to sail down the Mississippi River reaches New Orleans in January.

Economics

Large-scale drug production begins in Philadelphia.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: The first commercially successful steam locomotives, using the Blenkinsop rack and pinion drive, commenced operation on the Middleton Railway.

Discovery

Lewis and Clark: On December 20th Sacagawea (1790-1812/1884) dies at Fort Manuel. Clark (1770-1838), who is in St. Louis, assumes custody of Jean Baptiste, as well as her daughter, Lisette.

Discovery

Swiss historian J.L. Burckhardt (1773-1825) discovers the Great Temple at Abu Simbel in Egypt.

Popular Culture

The present Drury Lane Theatre in London is built.

Religion

Women''s Firsts: Ann Nancy Hesseltine Judson and Harriet Newell are the first two American women sent abroad as missionaries.

Religion

Mother Catherine Spaulding (1793-1858) founds the Sisters of Charity of Nazareth, Kentucky, a home-visiting order of nurses and teachers.

Religion

Elizabeth Seton (1774-1821) formally establishes the Sisters of Charity, the first Catholic sisterhood founded in America, from her earlier community (1809).

Government

James Madison (1751-1836) is inaugurated to a second term as President of the U.S. and Elbridge Gerry (1744-1814) is inaugurated as the nation's 5th Vice President.

War

War of 1812: U.S. forces capture York (now Toronto); the British seize Fort Niagara and burn Buffalo, NY; the British blockade coastal ports.

War

War of 1812: The Battle of Lake Erie (under Captain Oliver Hazard Perry) and the Battle of the Thames (Ontario) provide two victories for the Americans.

Inventions

J.F. Hummel patents rubber.

Inventions

Railroad History: Englishman William Hedley (1773-1843) builds and patents a railroad locomotive which can haul 10 coal wagons at 5 mph, equal to 10 horses.

Education

Higher Education: Colby College in Maine is founded.

Education

Higher Education: McGill University in Montreal, Canada, is founded.

Arts and Letters

The London Philharmonic Society is founded.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1827) completes his first major work, "Queen Mab"—an anti-religious work, at the age of 21.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Jane Austen (1775-1817) writes "Pride and Prejudice."

Adams, Abigail

Nabby Adams Smith (1765-1813), daughter of Abigail and John Adams, dies on August 15, of cancer.

Madison, Dolley

Dolley Madison (1764-1849) serves ice cream for the first time in the White House at the second Inaugural Ball.

Harrison, Anna

Anna Tuthill Harrison Taylor (1813-1845), daughter of William Henry and Anna Harrison, is born October 28.

Economics

Francis Cabot Lowell (1775-1817) first employs young women workers to work at the spinning frames and looms at his mill in Waltham, Massachusetts; living in boardinghouses established by Lowell, they became the first large-scale women’s labor force in America.

Daily Life

Newspapers: An editorial in the Troy (NY) Post first uses the nickname, “Uncle Sam,” as a symbolic reference to the United States.

Daily Life

The Grand Freemason Lodge is founded in the U.S.

Daily Life

Dancing: The waltz becomes popular in Europe.

Daily Life

The game of craps is first introduced into New Orleans, adapted from a French dice game called “hazards.”

Popular Culture

Johann Rudolf Wyss (1782-1830) completes "The Swiss Family Robinson."

Religion

The Methodist Missionary Society is founded.

Religion

A choirbook is composed for use in the Spanish missions of the southwest.

Religion

American nun Mother Mary Rhodes (1782-1853) founds the Sisters of Loretto in Kentucky after establishing two other communities for women west of the Allegheny Mountains.

Reform

Labor Movement: Leaders of the anti-technology Luddite movement in England are sentenced to hanging or deportation.

Government

Elbridge Gerry, 5th Vice President of the United Sates, dies in office; he is not replaced until the election of 1816, when Daniel D. Tompkins is elected.

War

National Capital: War of 1812: The British burn the White House, the Capital, and many other buildings in Washington, DC.

War

War of 1812: The Treaty of Ghent ends the British-American War on December 24. The Treaty returned conditions between the two countries to those that existed before the war began. Neither side achieved a clear victory.

Science

Massachusetts physician Jacob Bigelow (1786-1879) publishes "Flora Bostoniensis," the standard botany manual for years.

Inventions

Railroad History: George Stephenson (1781-1848), British inventor, invents the first steam locomotive, which is used instead of horses and mules to haul coal.

Inventions

The metronome is invented in Vienna by J.N. Maelzel (1772-1838).

Inventions

Eli Terry (1772-1852) invents a 30-hour shelf clock that uses interchangeable parts.

Inventions

Railroad History: Englishman George Stephenson (1781-1841) builds Blucher, his first railway engine. Pulls 30 tons at 4 mph, but is not efficient.

Education

Libraries: Although the Library of Congress is destroyed when the British burn Washington, DC, Congress decides to start over by purchasing Thomas Jefferson’s (1743-1826) personal library.

Arts and Letters

Franz Schubert (1797-1828) begins composing Lieder, lyrical songs in the Romantic tradition.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Jane Austen (1775-1817) publishes the novel "Mansfield Park," creating the character of Fanny Brice.

Madison, Dolley

Dolley Madison (1764-1849) is responsible for saving the famous Peale portrait of George Washington, hanging in the White House, and the Declaration of Independence, from the British when they invade the capital. She leaves the city just ahead of the British troops, who then burn Washington, DC.

Harrison, Anna

James Findlay Harrison (1814-1817), is the last son born to William Henry and Anna Harrison.

Taylor, Margaret

Sarah Knox Taylor Davis (1814-1835), daughter of Zachary and Margaret Taylor, is born March 6.

Fillmore, Abigail

Abigail Powers (Fillmore) (1798-1853) begins teaching in New Hope at age 16.

Economics

Francis Cabot Lowell (1775-1817) opens the first totally mechanized factory for processing raw cotton into finished cloth.

Daily Life

The term grapefruit is used for the first time in print, perhaps because its clusters resemble those of grapes.

Daily Life

Gas street lamps are installed in the first neighborhood—St. Margarets, Westminster, in London.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The "London Times" begins to be printed by a steam-operated press.

Popular Culture

Frances Scott Key (1779-1843) writes a poem about the British bombardment of Fort McHenry in the War of 1812 called “Defense of Fort McHenry.” It is later set to music and becomes “The Star Spangled Banner.”

Popular Culture

Children’s Books: Johann David Wyss (1743-1818) added religious piety to the Rousseauian influence in his "The Swiss Family Robinson"(German original 1812-1813); first edited and translated for English readers by William (1756-1836) and Mary (1797-1851) Godwin.

Religion

Pope Pius VII (1740-1823) returns to Rome and restores the Inquisition.

Religion

Elizabeth Seton’s (1774-1821) Sisters of Charity take charge of orphanages in Philadelphia (and later, in 1817, in New York City), establishing the first Catholic orphanages in America.

Social Issues

Native Americans: War of 1812: General Andrew Jackson (1767-1845) leads his troops to victory over the Creek Indians allied with Britain in the Battle of Horseshoe Bend (Alabama), thus destroying all future Creek power in the West.

Government

National Capital: The Capitol Building and the White House are rebuilt after the burning of Washington, DC.

War

The first steam warship, the U.S.S. Fulton is built.

War

U.S. naval hero Stephen Decatur (1779-1820) stops attacks by Algerian pirates by threatening to bomb Algiers.

War

Andrew Jackson (1767-1845) defeats the British at the Battle of New Orleans, fought two weeks after the Treaty of Ghent is signed.

Science

Sophie Germain (1776-1831) is awarded a gold medal from the Institute of France for her essay on elasticity.

Medicine

The Apothecaries Act in Britain bans the practice of medicine by unqualified doctors.

Inventions

A harder, smoother road surface made of crushed stones is invented by John McAdam (1756-1836).

Inventions

Davy invents the safety lamp for miners.

Inventions

Railroad History: Stephenson's (1781-1841) second engine: 6 wheels and a multitubular boiler.

Inventions

Railroad History: Englishman Julius Griffiths patents a passenger road locomotive.

Education

Libraries: Thomas Jefferson sells his book collection to the Library of Congress after its original collection was destroyed by the British army.

Education

Sunday school education is promoted in Boston.

Education

Education of Women: Margaret Bryan publishes An Astronomical and Geographical Class Book for Schools based on her girls’ school lectures.

Arts and Letters

The Biedermeier period in art and furniture design begins.

Arts and Letters

Magazines: "The North American Review" is established in Boston, soon to be the foremost literary journal in the U.S.

Tyler, Letitia

Mary Tyler Jones (1815-1848), is the first daughter born to John and Letitia Christian Tyler on April 15.

Economics

Leading imports in the United States are woolen and cotton items, sugar, and coffee. The leading export is cotton.

Daily Life

Transportation: The Conestoga wagon becomes a major method of transportation, especially among those headed west.

Daily Life

Dancing: A French ballroom dance, the quadrille, becomes fashionable among the English aristocracy.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: The 1815 edition of the Brockhaus Conversations-Lexikon lays out the division of the sexes: “Man obtains, woman sustains . . . man resists fate itself and defies force, even in defeat. Woman, however, submits willingly and finds comfort and succor, even in her tears.”

Law

The right to review state court decisions is affirmed by the Supreme Court.

Politics

James Monroe (1758-1831) is elected 5th President of the U.S. and Daniel Tomkins (1774-1825) is elected as the nation's 6th Vice President.

Government

New State: Indiana becomes the 19th state in the U.S.

Government

The U.S. Congress passes the first protective tariffs.

Science

The first book on mineralogy in the U.S., "Elementary Treatise on Mineralogy and Geology," is published by Parker Cleaveland (1780-1858).

Medicine

Epidemics: Ireland suffers a typhus epidemic that kills about a quarter of its population.

Inventions

The stethoscope is invented by French physician R. T. Laennec (1781-1826).

Inventions

The kaleidoscope is invented by Sir David Brewster (1781-1868).

Education

German educator Friedrich Frobel (1782-1852) moves his first educational community from Griesheim to Keilau, Thuringia.

Education

Children’s Books: "A Merry Method of Making Minor Mathematicians" is published by John Harris (1820-1884); this collection of mnemonic rhymes was designed to teach the multiplication tables.

Arts and Letters

Opera: "The Barber of Seville," by Gioacchino Rossini (1792-1868) opens in Rome.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Jane Austen (1775-1817) writes "Emma."

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1827) writes his first major poem, "Alastor."

Ideas

Hegel (1770-1831) completes his "Science of Logic;" his philosophy of idealism will dominate metaphysics for 25 years.

Taylor, Margaret

Octavia Pannel Taylor (1816-1820), daughter of Zachary and Margaret Taylor, is born August 16.

Tyler, Letitia

Robert Tyler (1816-1877), the first son of John and Letitia Christian Tyler, is born September 9.

Economics

Transportation: Regular clipper ship service across the Atlantic begins between New York and Liverpool, England.

Economics

The first Savings bank, The Provident Institute for Savings, is founded in Boston.

Economics

American Money: The second Bank of the United States is chartered for 20 years until 1836.

Daily Life

Disasters: The summer of 1916 is unusually cold in many parts of the world due to the eruption of the Tambora volcano in Indonesia—perhaps the greatest in recorded history. In New England, there is 10 inches of snow in June 6, and half an inch of ice in Vermont and New Hampshire in July and August. It is recorded as “the year in which there was no summer.”

Sports

Boxing: Jacob Hyer beats Tom Beasley in a boxing match and calls himself America’s first boxing champion.

Popular Culture

Ananias Davisson (1780-1857) publishes "Kentucky Harmony," a collection of music of the South and Midwest U.S.

Religion

The American Bible Society is founded; one of its goals is to place a Bible in every American home.

Social Issues

Immigration: Large numbers of British immigrants come to the United States and Canada.

Social Issues

The American Colonization Society forms—assists in repatriating free African Americans to a Liberian colony on the west coast of Africa.

Government

James Monroe (1758-1831) is inaugurated as the 5th President of the U.S. and Daniel Tomkins (1774-1825) is inaugurated as the nation's 6th Vice President.

Government

New State: Mississippi becomes the 20th state in the U.S.

War

Indian Wars: The Seminole War begins on the border between the U.S. and Spanish Florida.

Science

Selenium and lithium are discovered.

Science

Cadmium is discovered independently by Friedrich Stromeyer (1776-1835) and Hermann (1765-1846).

Medicine

James Parkinson (1755-1828) describes the degenerative disease that will carry his name.

Education

Early frontier education is influenced by the American Tract Society which spreads religious literature by means of circuit riders.

Education

Public Education: A petition presented in the Boston Town Meeting calls for establishing of a system of free public primary schools. Main support comes from local merchants, businessmen and wealthier artisans. Many wage earners oppose it, because they don't want to pay the taxes.

Arts and Letters

Opera: "Cinderella," a comic opera by Gioacchino Rossini (1792-1868), is first staged in Rome.

Ideas

David Ricardo (1772-1823) promotes liberal economic theory in his "Principles of Political Economy and Taxation;" his ideas are the foundation of modern economics as a science.

Ideas

G.F. Hegel (1770-1831) publishes the "Encyclopedia of Philosophy."

Madison, Dolley

The Madisons retire to Montpelier, their estate in Virginia, where Dolley continues her role as hostess and helps her husband, who suffers from arthritis, by taking dictation for his correspondence. She also helps him prepare his papers for future publication.

Van Buren, Hannah

Smith Thompson Van Buren (1817-1876), son of Martin and Hannah Van Buren is born January 16.

Harrison, Anna

James Findlay Harrison (1814-1817), the last son born to William Henry and Anna Harrison, dies.

Economics

Native Americans: American traders began to compete with Native American tribes for the buffalo fur business.

Economics

The U.S. begins construction of the Erie Canal between Buffalo and Albany.

Economics

The New York Stock and Exchange Board is officially established, to be renamed the New York Stock Exchange in 1863.

Economics

John Jacob Astor (1763-1848) obtains a fur trade monopoly in the Mississippi Valley, founding his fortune.

Daily Life

Baltimore becomes the first American city lit by gas.

Popular Culture

Stories of a sea serpent off the coast of Gloucester, Massachusetts tell of a creature 3 feet in diameter and from 70-100 feet long with a long tongue that shoots out of its mouth.

Religion

Construction of the Vatican Museum begins in Rome.

Social Issues

Slavery: The American Society for the Return of Negroes to Africa is founded in Richmond, Virginia; the Society first sends Negroes to Sierra Leone, then buys and establishes a neighboring area called Liberia.

Reform

Prison Reform: British reformer Elizabeth Fry (1780-1845) founds a prisoner’s aid society focusing on the prison conditions of women and children.

Government

The border between the U.S. and Canada is agreed to be the 49th parallel.

Government

New State: Illinois becomes the 21st state in the U.S.

Government

American Flag: The Act of April 4, 1818 states that 13 stripes and one star for each state will be added to the flag on the 4th of July following the admission of each new state and is signed into action by President Monroe.

Science

F.W. Bessel (1784-1846) catalogs over 3,000 stars in his Fundamenta Astronomiae.

Science

Cadmium is discovered independently by Friedrich Stromeyer (1776-1835) and Hermann (1765-1846).

Medicine

Iodine is used as a treatment for goiter by French chemist Jean-Baptiste Dumas (1800-1884).

Medicine

Marie Gillain Boivin (1776-1841) publishes her gynecological-obstetrical text, "Nouveau traité des maladies de l’uterus et des annexes."

Inventions

A lathe for making irregularly shaped items such as gun stocks is designed.

Education

Public Education: Boston public schools offer schooling for children as young as 4 years.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Lord Byron (1788-1824) writes "Don Juan."

Arts and Letters

Poetry: John Keats (1795-1821) writes "Endymion."

Arts and Letters

Literature: Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832) writes "The Heart of Midlothian" and "Rob Roy."

Arts and Letters

Literature: Mary Godwin Shelley (1797-1851) writes "Frankenstein."

Arts and Letters

Literature: Jane Austen’s (1775-1817) last two novels, "Northanger Abbey" and "Persuasion," are published after her death.

Adams, Abigail

Abigail Adams (1744-1818), second First Lady of the United States, dies of typhoid fever in October while residing in Braintree, MA.

Lincoln, Mary

Mary Todd Lincoln (1818-1882), future wife of Abraham Lincoln (1809–1865), is born on December 13 in Lexington, Kentucky.

Economics

Transportation: Packet boat lines begin to sail between New York and Liverpool, England.

Discovery

John Ross (1777-1856) leads an expedition to the Arctic to discover a Northwest Passage.

Daily Life

The tin can is introduced to the United States.

Sports

Horse Racing: The first professional horse racing occurs in the U.S.

Popular Culture

Englishman Thomas Bowdler (1754-1825) publishes a censored version of "The Family Shakespeare"; the expression to bowlderize becomes a term for the practice of omitting vulgar words from written works.

Religion

The lyrics for the hymn “Silent Night, Holy Night,” are written by the young curate, Joseph Mohr.

Law

'In "McCulloch v. Maryland," the Supreme Court expands federal powers by allowing Congress to charter a bank, an act not specifically permitted by the Constitution.

Government

Florida is ceded to the U.S. by Spain.

Government

New State: Alabama becomes the 22nd state in the U.S.

Government

The U.S. cities of Memphis and Minneapolis are founded.

Science

The American Geological Society is established at Yale College in Connecticut; it disbands in 1828.

Science

Electromagnetism is discovered by Danish physicist Hans C. Oersted (1777-1851).

Medicine

Mitscherlich discovers isomorphism.

Inventions

W.K. Clarkson patents the bicycle.

Education

Education of Women: Emma Hart Willard (1787-1870) writes "An Address to the Public: Particularly to the Members of the Legislature of New York, Proposing a Plan for Improving Female Education."

Education

Higher Education: Focusing on technical training, Norwich University opens in Vermont.

Education

Slavery: African American Education: Virginia outlaws blacks and a mulatto, whether free or slave, from meeting for the purposes of education and forbids teaching blacks to read and write.

Ideas

German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) publishes "The World as Will and Idea."

Van Buren, Hannah

Hannah Hoes Van Buren (1783-1819) dies of tuberculosis on February 5, eighteen years before her husband, Martin Van Buren, becomes President of the U.S.

Tyler, Letitia

John Tyler Jr. (1819-1896), son of John and Letitia Tyler, is born April 27.

Taylor, Margaret

Margaret Smith Taylor (1819-1820), daughter of Zachary and Margaret Taylor, is born July 27.

Fillmore, Abigail

Abigail Powers (1798-1853) meets Millard Fillmore (1800-1874) at the Academy in New Hope, New York.

Economics

Transportation: The very first ship to use steam as support on an Atlantic crossing was the American sailing ship Savannah who had been equipped with auxiliary steam engines geared to two paddle wheels on the ship’s sides. Because of distrust in this new mode of transportation, the vessel does not carry either passengers or cargo.

Economics

The Bank for Savings in New York City opens as one of the first U.S. savings banks.

Economics

The first commercially produced eating chocolate is produced in Switzerland.

Discovery

An expedition to the Rocky Mountains is led by explorer Stephen Long (1784-1864).

Religion

With roots in the Protestant Reformation and liberal New England Congregationalism, Unitarianism is founded in Boston by William Ellering Channing (1780-1842).

Social Issues

Slavery: Canada denies the American government the right to pursue runaway slaves within its borders.

Social Issues

Immigration: Congress establishes reporting on immigration.

Reform

Labor Movement: Children under the age of 9 are forbidden to work in mills in England; other young workers are limited to 12-hour days.

Politics

First Political Parties: James Monroe (1758-1831) is re-elected to a second term as President of the U.S. on the Democratic-Republican ticket, defeating John Quincy Adams; John C. Calhoun (1782-1850) is elected the nation's 7th Vice President.

Government

Slavery: Congress passes the Missouri Compromise, admitting Maine into the Union as a free state and Missouri as a slave state; slavery becomes excluded from the Union north of the Mason-Dixon Line.

Government

The Public Land Act lowers the cost of western lands to $1.25 an acre, in the hope of encouraging settlement of the West.

Government

New State: Maine becomes the 23rd state to join the Union.

Science

Andre Marie Ampere (1775-1836), French physicist, discovers the basic processes of electric currents.

Medicine

The New York Eye Infirmary is founded.

Inventions

An improved plow and cultivator is invented by Henry Burden (1791-1871) of New York.

Education

Massachusetts physician John Gorham (1783-1829) publishes a 2-volume textbook, "Elements of Chemical Science," which is the standard for years.

Education

Public Education: First public high school in the U.S., Boston English, opens.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: John Keats (1795-1821) writes "Ode on a Grecian Urn" and "Ode to a Nightingale."

Arts and Letters

Literature: Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832) publishes "Ivanhoe."

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Percy Bysshe Shelly (1792-1827) writes "Prometheus Unbound."

Ideas

Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) writes "Principles of Political Economy."

Monroe, Elizabeth

White House Wedding: Elizabeth Monroe (1768-1830) is the first First Lady to have a daughter (Maria Hester Monroe) married in the White House.

Tyler, Julia

Julia Gardiner (1820-1889), second wife of John Tyler (1790–1862), is born on Gardiner’s Island in New York. She is the third of ten First Ladies born in New York, the "mother state" of presidential wives.

Taylor, Margaret

Octavia Pannel Taylor (1816-1820), daughter of Zachary and Margaret Taylor, dies July 8 of malaria.

Taylor, Margaret

Margaret Smith Taylor (1819-1820), daughter of Zachary and Margaret Taylor, dies October 22 from malaria three months after the death of her sister.

Fillmore, Abigail

While teaching in New Hope, Abigail Fillmore (1798-1853) begins a campaign to raise funds for the first circulating library in New York.

Economics

The percentage of people working in agriculture begins to decline as family farms are gobbled up by larger agricultural businesses. At the same time, cities grow tremendously, fueled by new manufacturing industries.

Economics

A canning factory is opened in Boston by William Underwood.

Discovery

Nathanial Palmer becomes the first person to actually see the land mass of Antartica.

Discovery

The statue of the Venus de Milo (c. 150 B.C.) is discovered in Melos.

Discovery

Major Stephen Long (1784-1864) leads an expedition from Pittsburgh, exploring the area between the Missouri River and the Rocky Mountains.

Discovery

Platinum is discovered in the Russian Ural Mountains.

Popular Culture

The short story as a literary form is introduced by Washington Irving (1783-1859) with the publication of "The Sketch Book," which includes “Rip Van Winkle” and “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow.”

Religion

The Jesuits are driven out of Rome.

Religion

The music for the hymn “Silent Night, Holy Night,” is composed by Franz Xaver Huber to words written by the young curate, Joseph Mohr.

Social Issues

Slavery: 86 Blacks set sail for the British colony of Sierra Leone on the ship Mayflower of Liberia.

Social Issues

Slavery: In Charleston, South Carolina, slaves are required to wear distinctive identification tags. This law is later extended to free blacks in the city as well.

Government

Mexico declares independence from Spain. Santa Fe Trail opened to international trade.

Government

James Monroe (1758-1831) is inaugurated to a second term as President of the U.S. and John C. Calhoun (1782-1850) is inaugurated as the nation's 7th Vice President.

Government

New State: Missouri becomes the 24th state to join the Union (as a slave state).

Inventions

The electric motor is invented by Michael Faraday (1791-1867).

Technology

Sound reproduction is demonstrated by Sir Charles Wheatstone (1802-1875).

Education

Native American Education: A Cherokee named Sequoyah (c.1770-1843) develops an alphabet of 86 characters, with which stories, hymns, and a Bible were printed in the Cherokee language.

Education

Education of Women: Dorothea Dix (1802-1887) opens a dame school for young girls in Boston.

Education

Education of Women: The Troy Female Seminary is founded by Emma Hart Willard (1787-1870).

Education

Children’s Books: Early Piety, or Memoirs of Childhood mixes stories such as "Of a very good girl; that died very happy before she was seven years old, with others like "the history of a sad wicked child, and his miserable death."

Arts and Letters

Frances Wright (1795-1852) publishes "Views of Society and Manners in America."

Tyler, Letitia

Letitia (Letty) Tyler Semple (1821-1907), daughter of John and Letitia Tyler, is born on May 11.

Economics

Population: The fourth census (1820) shows that the population of the U.S. is about 9.6 million.

Daily Life

Transportation: The first wagon train on the Santa Fe Trail is led by William Becknell (1788-1865).

Daily Life

The game of poker is invented by sailors in New Orleans.

Popular Culture

James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851) publishes "The Spy," which leads him to become the first popular American novelist.

Religion

The first Catholic cathedral to be dedicated in the U.S. is the Cathedral of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Baltimore.

Reform

Black Suffrage Movement: Nearly all property qualifications required to vote are abolished by the New York state constitution, but the state continues to deny suffrage to Blacks.

Reform

Abolition Movement: Benjamin Lundy (1789-1839), Quaker saddle maker, begins publishing his anti-slavery newspaper, Genius of Universal Emancipation.

Government

Presidents: Ulysses S. Grant (1822-1885), 18th President of the U.S., is born April 27 in Point Pleasant, Ohio.

Government

Presidents: Rutherford B. Hayes (1822-1881), 19th President of the U.S., is born October 4 in Delaware, Ohio.

Government

Florida is organized as a territory.

Science

A theory of evolution, subsequently proved to be in error, is published by Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829).

Medicine

Observations of human gastric juices are begun by U.S. Army physician William Beaumont (1785-1853). His observations are made on a sailor who suffered a bullet wound in the stomach that did not quite heal.

Inventions

The first patent for making false teeth is obtained by W.C. Graham.

Technology

Gas lights are installed on the streets of Boston.

Education

Higher Education: Hobart College is founded in Geneva, NY; it offers an “English Course” designed for “the practical business of life.”

Arts and Letters

Franz Liszt (1811-1886), Hungarian pianist, makes his debut at age 11.

Arts and Letters

The diorama, paintings illuminated in a dark room to give the illusion of reality, is invented by Daguerre and Bouton.

Arts and Letters

The Royal Academy of Music in founded in London.

Economics

Cotton mills in Massachusetts begin using water-powered machinery.

Discovery

The Rosetta stone, found in 1799, is deciphered by French Egyptologist Jean Francois Champollion (1790-1832).

Daily Life

Molly Pitcher, a.k.a. Mary McCauley (1754-1832), is awarded a pension by the state of Pennsylvania.

Sports

Soccer: Yale prohibits the playing of football (soccer); violators are fined.

Social Issues

Slavery: An informer reveals a plot led by Denmark Vesey (1767-1822), a free black man, for a massive slave uprising in South Carolina. Thirty-five blacks, including Vessey, are hanged, and severely repressive slave codes are passed in the South.

Reform

Slavery: Liberia is founded as a colony for blacks fleeing America.

Reform

Protest Music: “The Ballad of Major Andre” is written during the American Revolution by Major John Andre (? -1780).

Politics

Daniel Webster (1782-1852) takes a seat in the House of Representatives, and Henry Clay (1777-1852) becomes Speaker of the House.

Government

James Monroe (1758-1831) presents his Monroe Doctrine, stating that any attempts by Europeans to interfere in the Americas will be considered an affront to the national interest of the U.S.

War

Indian Wars: American troops defeat the Sauk and Fox chief Black Hawk, who has tried to prevent white settlement in the Illinois territory.

Medicine

The British medical journal, "The Lancet," is first published.

Medicine

The first ophthalmology book in the U.S., "A Treatise on the Diseases of the Eye," is published.

Inventions

Computers: Early attempts to build a calculating machine (computer) are made by Charles Babbage (1791-1871).

Inventions

A waterproof fabric is invented by Charles Macintosh (1766-1843).

Education

Education of Women: Catherine Beecher (1800-1878) founds a girls’ school in Hartford, CT.

Education

Teacher Education: The first private normal school (for training teachers) in the U.S. opens in Concord, Vermont.

Education

The first gymnasium offering systematic instruction is started by the Round Hill School in Massachusetts. Gymnastics is scheduled from 5 to 7 p.m.

Education

Children''s Books: Clement Clark Moore (1779-1863) publishes "A Visit from St. Nicholas" ("‘Twas the Night Before Christmas").

Education

African American Education: Alexander Lucius Twilight (1795-1857) graduates from Middlebury College, making him the first black college graduate in the U.S.

Arts and Letters

Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1857) completes the "Missa Solemnis, Op. 123."

Tyler, Letitia

Elizabeth "Lizzie" Tyler Waller (1823-1850), daughter of John and Letitia Tyler, is born July 11.

Sports

Football: Football is invented by a 17-year-old British rugby player when, against the rules of rugby, he takes up the ball and runs with it.

Sports

Horse Racing: The first great U.S. horse race takes place between the North and the South on Long Island; the purse is about $20,000.

Popular Culture

James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851) publishes "The Pioneers," the first of the Leatherstocking Tales.

Reform

Abolition Movement: An Anti-Slavery Society is founded in England by William Wilberforce (1759-1833).

Politics

John Quincy Adams (1767-1848) is elected as the 6th President of the U.S. by the House of Representatives when none of the four candidates achieves a majority in the national election; John C. Calhoun (1782-1850) is re-elected as Vice President.

Politics

The world’s first public opinion poll tries to predict voting intentions for the presidential election of 1824.

Government

The Tariff Act of 1824 is passed by Congress in an effort to protect American industry.

Government

Native Americans: The U.S. Secretary of War establishes the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), which does not receive congressional authorization until 1934.

Government

National Capital: The Capitol Rotunda is completed; it is the connecting space between the House of Representatives and the Senate sides of the building.

Science

French physicist Nicholas Leonard Sadi Carnot (1796-1832) first states the principle that will become William Thompson’s (1824-1907) Second Law of Thermodynamics (energy moves from a warm to a cold body, not the reverse).

Education

Emma Willard (1787-1870) writes a widely-used textbook, "Ancient Geography."

Education

The first science and engineering school in the U.S. is founded; it is later named Renssalaer Polytechnic Institute.

Education

Mary Randolph (1762-1828) publishes "The Virginia Housewife," intended to instruct novice wives.

Education

Children''s Books: Dorothea Dix (1802-1887) writes a children’s book, "Conversations on Common Things."

Arts and Letters

The National Gallery is London is founded.

Taylor, Margaret

Mary Elizabeth Taylor Bliss Dandridge (1824-1909), daughter of Zachary and Margaret Taylor, is born April 20.

Lincoln, Mary

Mary Todd’s (1818-1882) mother dies in childbirth when she is six years old.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: Construction begins on the 1st locomotive workshop in New Castle, England.

Discovery

A gateway to the west through the Rocky Mountains is discovered at South Pass, WY.

Discovery

The Great Salt Lake is discovered.

Religion

The Sunday School Union is founded in the United States.

Reform

Utopian Movement: Robert Owen (1771-1858) founds New Harmony, a utopian community in Indiana.

Reform

Labor Movement: The first recorded strike by women is a weaver’s strike at Pawtucket, RI.

Government

The U.S. signs a treaty with Russia setting the border between Canada and Alaska.

Government

Native Americans: Congress adopts a policy of removal of eastern Indian tribes to territory west of the Mississippi River; whites settle on Indian lands.

Government

John Quincy Adams (1767-1848) is inaugurated as the 6th President of the U.S. and John C. Calhoun (1782-1850) is inaugurated as the continuing Vice President.

Government

Native Americans: A treaty is established between the U.S. and the Oglala branch of the Teton Sioux (Lakota) regarding fur trade, signed for the Oglala by Standing Buffalo (aka Standing Bull).

Science

Michael Faraday (1791-1867) succeeds in isolating benzene.

Science

Georges Couvier (1769-1832) suggests that alterations in the earth causing extinction of whole animal species are associated with great natural catastrophes.

Technology

Railroad History: Stephenson's (1781-1841) 8-ton LOCOMOTION No. 1 built for the Stockton & Darlington Railroad is capable of pulling 90 tons of coal at 15 mph.

Arts and Letters

"The Diary of Samuel Pepys" is published.

Arts and Letters

Dance: The Bolshoi Ballet is established in Moscow.

Ideas

English philosopher John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) publishes "Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind," an early work in psychology, at age 19.

Adams, Louisa

Louisa Adams (1775-1852) moves into the White House with her husband, John Quincy Adams.

Adams, Louisa

Louisa Adams (1775-1852) becomes the first First Lady to write her autobiography, which she called "Adventures of a Nobody."

Tyler, Letitia

Anne Contesse Tyler (1825), daughter of John and Letitia Tyler, is born in April and dies three months later in July.

Lincoln, Mary

Mary Todd’s (1818-1882) father remarries—Elizabeth (Betsy) Humphreys of Frankfort, KY.

Economics

The Erie Canal, connecting Lake Eire and the Hudson River, opens.

Economics

The New York Stock Exchange opens, trading mostly canal, turnpike, mining, and gas lighting companies.

Discovery

Alexander Gordon Laing (1793-1826) is the first explorer to reach Timbuktu (in what is now Mali).

Daily Life

Tea roses from China are introduced in Europe.

Daily Life

Duncan Phyfe (1768-1854) begins producing furniture in the Empire style.

Sports

Baseball: A Baseball Club is organized in Rochester, New York.

Sports

Horse Racing: The New York Trotting Club builds a race course on Long Island.

Social Issues

Native Americans: The Chippewa, Iowa, Potawami, Sauk and Fox, Sioux, and Winnebago tribes sign a treaty for territorial boundaries.

Social Issues

Native Americans: Creek Indians reject a treaty ceding all their lands in Georgia to the U.S.

Reform

Labor Movement: In Boston, 600 master carpenters strike for a 10-hour day.

Reform

Utopian Movement: A community of slaves is organized by Frances Wright (1795-1852), designed to help them get ready for freedom.

Politics

Third Parties: The first third party in the U.S., the Anti-Masonic Party, is founded.

Science

André Ampere (1775-1836) publishes his "Treatise on Electrodynamics."

Inventions

The first permanent photograph is produced by J.N. Niepce (1765-1833), a French scientist.

Inventions

Samuel Morey (1762-1843) patents an internal combustion engine.

Inventions

The first reflecting telescope is built in the U.S. by Amasa Holcomb (1787-1875) in Massachusetts.

Inventions

Bassell designs a pendulum that takes exactly one second per swing.

Education

Education of Women: The first public high schools for girls open in New York and Boston.

Education

The American Lyceum—a mechanism for adult education—is founded.

Education

The Smithsonian Institution is founded in Washington, DC, endowed by James Smithson (1765-1829).

Arts and Letters

The U.S. Academy of Design is founded by Samuel F.B. Morse (1791-1872).

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1806-1861) publishes "Essays on Mind, with Other Poems."

Adams, Abigail

John Adams (1735-1826), 2nd President of the U.S., dies in Braintree (now Quincy), MA.

Jefferson, Martha

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) dies on July 4 at Monticello (near Charlottsville, VA).

Harrison, Anna

Lucy Singleton Harrison Este (1800-1826), daughter of William Henry and Anna Harrison, dies April 7.

Taylor, Margaret

Richard Taylor (1826-1879), son of Zachary and Margaret Taylor, is born January 27.

Fillmore, Abigail

Abigail Powers (1798-1853) marries Millard Fillmore (1800-1874) on Feb. 5 in Moravia, NY.

Lincoln, Mary

Mary Todd (1818-1882) enters the academy of Dr. John Ward; stays until she is 14.

Grant, Julia

Julia Boggs Dent (1826-1902), future wife of President Ulysses S. Grant(1822–1885), is born on January 26 on her family’s plantation near St. Louis, Missouri.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: The first line of rails in the New England States is said to have been laid down at Quincy, Mass., 3 miles in length and pulled by horses.

Discovery

The first overland journey to Southern California is led by Jedediah Strong Smith (1798-1831).

Daily Life

Newspapers: The first issue of the "United States Telegraph" is published; it reflects an anti-John Quincy Adams (1767-1848) bias.

Popular Culture

James Fennimore Cooper (1789-1851) publishes "The Last of the Mohicans."

Social Issues

Native Americans: The Creek Indians sign the Treaty of Washington, which voids the previous treaty and cedes less land to the government; it requires the Indians to move in 1827.

Social Issues

Slavery: A Pennsylvania law makes kidnapping a felony, thereby nullifying the Fugitive Slave Act of 1793.

Reform

Temperence Movement: The American Society for the Promotion of Temperance is founded in Boston.

Politics

Sectional differences in the U.S. between the North and South increase over tariffs: northern industrialists are for them; southern plantation owners oppose them.

Government

Joint occupation of the Oregon territory is agreed upon by the U.S. and Britain.

War

Congress gives the President the right to call out the militia.

Science

The mammalian ovum (egg) is discovered, proving that mammals do develop from eggs.

Science

John J. Audubon (1785-1851) publishes "Birds of North America."

Medicine

Brights’ disease (of the kidneys) is described by English physician Richard Bright (1789-1858).

Inventions

The screw propeller for ships is invented.

Education

Joanne Bethune founds the Infant School Society in New York City.

Education

African American Education: A letter in the Freedom Journal demands education for black women.

Education

The first nautical school in America is opened in Nantucket, Massachusetts.

Education

Public Education: Massachusetts requires every town with 500 or more families to establish a public high school.

Education

Public Education: Massachusetts passes a law making all grades of public school open to all pupils free of charge.

Arts and Letters

"A Midsummer Night’s Dream," by Felix Mendelssohn (1809-1847), premieres.

Economics

Transportation: The first public transit system—horse-drawn busses—appear in New York City.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad is chartered to run from Baltimore to the Ohio River in Virginia. It was the first westward bound railroad in America.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: The Switch Back Gravity Railroad in Pennsylvania begins operation in May of 1827 before work begins on the B&O. It is the second railroad in the U.S.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The first newspaper for blacks in the U.S., "Freedom’s Journal" is published in New York City.

Daily Life

Cincinnati is considered the Queen City of the west, at least for a time before the rise of Chicago.

Daily Life

Karl Baedeker (1801-1859) begins publishing his travel guides.

Daily Life

John Walker (1781-1859) introduces sulfur friction matches—called Lucifers—in England.

Daily Life

Holidays: The Mardi Gras celebration begins when French-American students organize a procession of street maskers on Shrove Tuesday in New Orleans.

Sports

A handbook for sportsmen, the American Shooter’s Manual, is published in Philadelphia.

Popular Culture

The murder of Maria Martin in England is the inspiration for a wildly popular melodrams, Maria Martin, or The Murder in the Red Barn.

Religion

The Second Great Awakening, an era of intense, emotional religious revivalism, makes a large impression across the country.

Reform

Perhaps the first organized American women’s club, the Women’s Social Society at New Harmony, is founded by Frances Wright.

Politics

First Political Parties: The Democratic party is formed, based on Jeffersonian principles. Andrew Jackson (1767-1845) is the first nominee, and defeats John Quincy Adams (1767-1848) for the Presidency; John C. Calhoun (1782-1850) is re-elected Vice President.

Politics

Third Parties: The Working Men’s Party is founded in New York City.

Government

Railroad History: Congress authorizes the construction of the first state-owned railway in Pennsylvania.

Government

The so-called Tariff of Abominations, imposing duties on manufactured goods is passed.

Science

The discipline of organic chemistry begins.

Science

Caroline Herschel (1750-1848) is awarded a gold medal by Britain’s Royal Astronomical Society for her catalog of nebulae.

Medicine

Dr. Hopff first uses the term "hemophilia" in describing the blood disease.

Inventions

The electromagnet is invented.

Education

Education of Women: Zilpah Grant (1794-1874) becomes head of the Ipswitch Female Seminary, a select girls’ boarding school.

Education

Noah Webster (1758-1843) publishes his "American Dictionary of the English Language," with 70,000 definitions, including many words derived from immigrant and Native American languages.

Education

Libraries: The Reading Room Society, the first social library for African Americans, opens in Philadelphia.

Arts and Letters

Franz Schubert (1797-1828) gives his only public concert in Vienna.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Alexander Dumas (pere--1802-1870) writes "The Three Musketeers."

Adams, Louisa

White House Weddings: Louisa (1775-1852) and John Quincy Adams (1767-1848) son, John II (1803-1834), marries Mary Catherine Hellen in the White House.

Jackson, Rachel

Rachel Donelson Robards Jackson (1767-1828) dies at home on December 22 at 62. She is the first President's wife to die after her husband had been elected to office of President but before he was sworn in and she could become the First Lady.

Fillmore, Abigail

Millard Fillmore (1800--1874) is elected to the New York State Legislature, where he serves until 1831.

Fillmore, Abigail

Millard Powers Fillmore (1828-1889), son of Millard and Abigail Fillmore, is born April 25.

Johnson, Eliza

Martha Johnson Patterson (1828-1901), daughter of Andrew and Eliza Johnson, is born October 25.

Economics

Construction starts on the Baltimore and Ohio railroad.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: Delaware & Hudson Canal Co. builds a railroad from their mines to the termination of the canal at Honesdale.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The first Indian newspaper, the Cherokee Phoenix is published in Georgia.

Daily Life

Magazines: Sarah Josepha Hale (1788-1879) becomes editor-publisher of the American Ladies Magazine (until 1836).

Sports

The first archery club is formed in Philadelphia; members pay an initiation fee of $5.00 and $.50 dues a month.

Popular Culture

Thomas (“Jim Crow”) Rice (1808-1860) introduces the song “Jim Crow” between acts of a play; it is the first international song hit of American popular music.

Social Issues

Native Americans: American social critic Elizabeth Sanders (1762-1851) anonymously publishes a booklet praising Indian culture and condemning its destruction by General Andrew Jackson.

Reform

Abolition Movement: Isabella van Wagener (c. 1797-1883) is freed from slavery and takes the name Sojourner Truth; she preaches against slavery throughout New York and New England.

Politics

The practice of awarding political appointments based on party service is introduced by Andrew Jackson (1767-1845).

Government

Andrew Jackson (1767-1848) is inaugurated as the 7th President of the U.S. and John C. Calhoun (1782-1850) is inaugurated as the continuing Vice President.

Inventions

Louis Daguerre (1787-1851) invents the daguerreotype, a commonly used form of photography.

Inventions

The concertina is patented by Sir Charles Wheatstone (1802-1875).

Inventions

An early version of the typewriter is patented by William Austin Burt (1792-1858).

Technology

The term “technology” is coined in a work called "Elements of Technology" by Harvard professor Jacob Bigelow., M.D. (1787-1879).

Education

Special Education: The Perkins Institution, the first school for the blind in the U.S. opens.

Education

The first American encyclopedia, Encyclopedia Americana ins published.

Education

Special Education: Louis Braille (1809-1852) adapts a communication system used by the French military.

Education

Children’s Books: Ann Taylor (1782-1866) and her sister Jane (1783-1824) collaborated on several books of poems for "infant minds," chiefly but not exclusively religious poems. Ann (1782-1866) was author of "My Mother" and Jane (1783-1824) of "Twinkle, twinkle, little star." They wrote "Original Poems for Infant Minds," illustrated with woodcuts.

Arts and Letters

Opera: Rossini (1792-1868) completes his last major work, the opera, "William Tell."

Arts and Letters

Frederic Chopin (1810-1849) debuts in Vienna.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Edgar Allen Poe (1809-1849) publishes his first work, "Tamerlane and Other Poems."

Adams, Louisa

George Washington Adams (1801-1829), son of President John Quincy Adams and Louisa Adams, dies a mysterious death on April 30. Many historians believe he committed suicide.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: The first steam locomotive used in America, the English-built Stourbridge Lion, is put to work on the Delaware & Hudson.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: Peter Cooper (1791-1883) of New York in 6 weeks time builds the Tom Thumb, a vertical boiler 1.4 HP locomotive, for the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad.

Economics

The first modern hotel, the Tremont, opens in Boston with 170 rooms.

Daily Life

Second Great Awakening: In part stimulated by the Second Great Awakening, crusader Sylvester Graham attacks meats, fats, catsup, mustard, pepper, and white bread as stimulating carnal appetites.

Religion

The Catholic Emancipation Act in Britain allows Catholics to hold public office.

Reform

Abolition Movement: Sarah Moore Grimké (1792-1873) publishes Epistle to the Clergy of the Southern States, in which she attacks religious rationalizations of slavery.

Government

Native Americans: The Indian Removal Act is passed enabling whites to move Indians to reservations.

Government

Abortion: U.S. Congress makes abortion a statutory crime.

Government

Mexico bans further U.S. settlement in Texas.

Government

Presidents: Chester A. Arthur (1830-1886), 21st President of the U.S., is born October 5 in Fairfield, Vermont.

Science

The cell nucleus in plants is discovered.

Science

Charles Lyell (1797-1875) organizes the geological system into three groups: eocene, miocene, and pliocene.

Medicine

America’s first veterinarian, Charles Grice, opens an animal hospital in New York City.

Inventions

Frenchman, B. Thimonnier (1793-1859), invents a sewing machine.

Inventions

The fountain pen is patented by H.D. Hyde of Pennsylvania.

Education

African American Education: By this time, most southern states have laws forbidding teaching people in slavery to read. Even so, around 5 percent become literate at great personal risk.

Arts and Letters

Hector Berlioz (1803-1869) writes his "Symphonie fantastique."

Monroe, Elizabeth

Elizabeth Kortright Monroe (1768-1830), wife of James Monroe, in office 1817-1825, dies at the family home, Oak Hill, in Virginia.

Harrison, Anna

John Cleves Symmes Harrison (1798-1830), son of William Henry and Anna Harrison, dies October 30 in the midst of political controversy.

Tyler, Letitia

Tazewell Tyler (1830-1874), the youngest of John and Letitia Tyler's children, is born December 6.

Fillmore, Abigail

The Fillmore family moves to Buffalo; both parents are active in efforts to improve public education and establish a public library system there.

Lane, Harriet

Harriet Lane (1830-1903), niece of President James Buchanan (1791–1868), is born on May 9 in Franklin County, Pennsylvania. Since he remained a bachelor, Harriet Lane served as his First Lady during his time in office.

Johnson, Eliza

Charles Johnson (1830-1863), son of Andrew and Eliza Johnson, is born February 19.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: The first locomotive built in the U.S. makes its first trip on the Baltimore and Ohio railroad; it later loses a race against a horse when an engine belt slips. 0 1210 1830 12 Population: The fifth national census puts the population at 12.8 million, including about 150,000 immigrants. 0 8066 1830 12 Transportation: Railroad History: The Best Friend is built at the West Point Foundery at New York for the Charlston & Hamburg Railroad. It was the first complete

Economics

Population: The fifth national census puts the population at 12.8 million, including about 150,000 immigrants.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: The Best Friend is built at the West Point Foundery at New York for the Charlston & Hamburg Railroad. It was the first completely American-built steam engine to go into scheduled passenger service.

Daily Life

Fashion: Ladies' skirts grow shorter and sleeves and hats grow bigger; stiff collars become part of men’s dress.

Daily Life

Sylvester Graham invents the graham cracker, which becomes a favorite of children everywhere.

Daily Life

Magazines: "Godey's Lady's Book," a magazine for women, is founded.

Popular Culture

Oliver Wendell Holmes (1809-1894) writes the poem, “Old Ironsides,” which so popularizes the story of the U.S.S. Constitution that plans to scrap the ship are cancelled.

Religion

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, or Mormons, is founded by Joseph Smith (1805-1844).

Politics

Former President John Quincy Adams (1767-1848) is elected as the Congressional representative from Massachusetts.

Government

Presidents: James A. Garfield (1831-1881), 20th President of the U.S. is born November 19 in Orange, Ohio.

Government

U.S. copyright law is amended to last for 28 years, renewable for 14.

War

The French Foreign Legion is founded.

Science

Charles Darwin (1809-1882) sails on the H.M.S. Beagle, a trip on which he conceives the idea of evolution.

Science

Michael Farraday (1791-1867) develops the electromagnetic generator.

Inventions

Chloroform is invented.

Inventions

An early version of the mechanical reaper is developed by Cyrus McCormick (1809-1884).

Technology

Airplanes: Thomas Walker (1804-1886) proposes a tandem-wing airoplane with the pilot and the propulsion system amidships. This would later influence Samuel Langley as he designed his aerodromes.

Education

African American Education: Maria W. Miller Stewart (1803-1879), an African American orator, exhorts African Americans to become educated and fight for their rights; she speaks out at a time when very few women are able to speak in public.

Education

Libraries: The Female Literary Society, the first social library for African-American women, is founded in Philadelphia.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Victor Hugo (1802-1885) publishes "The Hunchback of Notre Dame."

Monroe, Elizabeth

James Monroe, fifth President of the U.S. dies in New York, New York (b. 1758).

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy Ware Webb (1831-1889), future wife of Rutherford B. Hayes (1822–1893), is born August 28 in Chillicothe, Ohio.

Economics

The Industrial Revolution focuses on textile mills.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: Robert L. Stevens buys the British locomotive, the John Bull, and establishes America’s first steam railway.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: The 3.5 ton De Witt Clinton hauls 5 stage coach bodies on railroad wheels at 25 mph on the Mohawk & Hudson Railroad between Albany and Schenectady.

Economics

Transportation: The Canadian paddle steamer, Royal William, cross the Atlantic with steam as the prime source of drift. However, her engines had to be stopped every few days because they had to be scraped from the accumulated salt deposits from the seawater used in her boilers.

Discovery

Scottish explorer James Ross (1800-1862) and his Uncle, Sir John Ross (1777-1856), determine the position of the magnetic North Pole.

Daily Life

This year sees the first use of the term “Old Glory” for the U.S. flag.

Sports

Horse Racing: A popular racing sheet, the "Spirit of the Times," is established by William Trotter; its aim is to improve the reputation of racing and other sports.

Popular Culture

American Theatre: The first showboat is built, called "The Floating Theatre."

Popular Culture

Samuel Francis Smith (1808-1895) writes the words to "My Country, 'Tis of Thee."

Social Issues

Immigration: German immigration to the U.S. is about 15,000.

Social Issues

Slavery: Nat Turner (1800-1831) leads an unsuccessful slave uprising.

Social Issues

Slavery: The term "underground railroad" becomes widely used.

Reform

Abolition Movement: William Lloyd Garrison (1805-1879) begins publishing his abolitionist periodical, The Liberator.

Politics

Andrew Jackson (1767-1845) is re-elected President and Martin Van Buren (1782-1862) is elected the 8th Vice President on the new Democratic Party ticket.

Politics

Third Parties: For the first time in American history, a third party challenges the major two parties. William Wirt (1772–1834) of the Anti-Masonic Party carries 8 percent of the vote and one state. Andrew Jackson (1767–1845), Democratic-Republican, is reelected President over National-Republican Henry Clay (1777–1852).

Government

John C. Calhoun (1782-1850) becomes the first Vice President to resign from office; he runs successfully for the Senate.

Government

States in the South begin a series of nullification acts, attempting to redefine their relationship to the federal government.

War

Indian Wars: U.S. troops fight the last Indian war north of the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi.

Science

Jane Kilby Welsh publishes her textbook, "Familiar Lessons in Mineralogy and Geology."

Medicine

The dissection of cadavers in medical schools is legalized in Massachusetts.

Medicine

Epidemics: A cholera epidemic sweeps through major American cities, killing over 7,000 people in New York and New Orleans.

Medicine

The disease later known as Hodgkin’s disease is described by English physician Thomas Hodgkin (1798-1866).

Inventions

The lawn mower is invented.

Inventions

Walter Hunt (1796-1859) invents a lock-stitch sewing machine.

Inventions

Louis Braille (1809-1852) invents the stereoscope.

Inventions

Cyrus McCormick invents the first commercially successful reaper.

Education

Education of Women: Catherine Beecher (1800-1878) founds the Western Female Institute in Cincinnati.

Education

Special Education: Samuel Howe (1801-1876) founds the Perkins Institute, the first major school for the blind in the U.S.

Arts and Letters

The Boston Academy of Music offers free music lessons to children, adults, and teachers.

Arts and Letters

Drama: Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832) finishes "Faust."

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Alfred Lord Tennyson (1809-1892) publishes "The Lady of Shalott."

Adams, Abigail

Thomas Boylston Adams, third son of John and Abigail Adams, dies at 59, probably of complications of alcoholism.

Fillmore, Abigail

A daughter, Mary Abigail (1832-1854), is born to Abigail and Millard Fillmore in Buffalo on March 27.

Lincoln, Mary

Mary Todd (1818-1882) is enrolled at Madame Victorie Mentelle’s select school for young ladies.

Johnson, Eliza

Mary Johnson Stover Brown (1832-1883), daughter of Andrew and Eliza Johnson, is born May 8.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy Webb's (1831-1889) father dies of cholera.

Garfield, Lucretia

Lucretia Rudolph (1832-1918), future wife of President James A. Garfield (1831–1881), is born on April 19 in Hiram, Ohio.

Harrison, Caroline

Caroline Lavinia Scott (1832-1892), future wife of President Benjamin Harrison (1833–1901), is born On October 1 in Oxford, Ohio.

Economics

Transportation: The "Ann McKim," first of the American clipper ships, is launched in Baltimore.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: "The Brother Jonathon" was the first locomotive in the world to have a four-wheel leading truck; it was designed by John B. Jervis for the Mohawk & Hudson Railroad.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: "The American No. 1" was the first 4-4-0, the first of its class; it was designed by John B. Jervis (1795 –1885), Chief Engineer for the Mohawk & Hudson.

Daily Life

Frances Trollope (1780-1863) publishes "Domestic Manners of the Americans."

Reform

Abolition Movement: The New England Anti-Slavery Society is founded in Boston.

Reform

The first work to treat women in a completely distinctive way, "The History of Women," is published.

Reform

Abolition Movement: African American women found the first Anti-Slavery society in Salem, Massachusetts.

Government

Congress gives President Jackson (1767-1845) the power to use the armed forces to enforce the tariff laws; South Carolina rescinds its nullification acts after a compromise on tariffs is reached.

Government

President: Benjamin Harrison (1831-1901), 23rd President of the U.S., is born.

Government

National Capital: The Treasury building burns to the ground in Washington, DC.

Government

Andrew Jackson (1767-1845) is inaugurated as President and Martin Van Buren (1782-1862) is inaugurated as the nation's 8th Vice President.

Science

Michael Farraday (1791-1867) coins the terms electrolysis, electrolyte, anode, and cathode.

Inventions

Computers: Charles Babbage (1791-1871) suggests the possibility of building an “analytical engine,” an early calculator.

Education

Higher Education; Education of Women: African American Education: Oberlin College in Ohio is the first college to admit Blacks and women.

Education

Education of Women: Prudence Crandall (1803-1890) admits black students to her girls’ school in Connecticut and is imprisoned for violating a law passed especially to prevent her from doing so.

Education

Libraries: The first tax-supported public library in the United States is founded in Peterborough, New Hampshire.

Education

Children’s Books: Peter Parley's "Winter Evening Tales;" this delightful little book with its copperplate title page and frontispiece shows a less forbidding side of S. G. Goodrich (1793-1860).

Arts and Letters

Frederic Chopin (1810-1849) writes the "Piano Concerto in E Minor."

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Alfred, Lord Tennyson (1809-1892) writes "In Memoriam."

Daily Life

Transportation: The Canadian ship, S.S. Royal William crosses the Atlantic in 25 days.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The first "penny press," the "New York Sun," makes newspapers widely available, thus helping the spread of literacy.

Daily Life

Magazines: The first magazine for mothers, "Mother’s Magazine," is published and edited by Abigail Goodrich Whittelsey (1788-1858).

Daily Life

Magazines: Parley's Magazine for Children & Youth. This is a twice-monthly magazine, founded by Samuel Griswold Goodrich (1793-1860). It emphasized geography, travel, natural history, and simple technology, along with Bible stories.

Sports

Baseball: An early form of baseball is played by the Olympic Ball Club in Philadelphia; most rules are like those of English cricket.

Popular Culture

The legend of Davy Crockett (1786-1836) is begun with the publication of "Sketches and Eccentricities of Col. David Crockett, of West Tennessee."

Social Issues

Slavery: The British Empire abolishes slavery in its colonies.

Reform

Abolition Movement: The American Anti-Slavery Society is founded in Philadelphia by James Mott (1788-1868). Lucretia Mott (1793-1880), his wife, founds the Female Anti-Slavery Society.

Reform

Labor Movement: Shoemakers in Geneva, New York, go on strike; they win, but a later court case declares strikes to be illegal.

Reform

Labor Movement: The General Trades Union is formed in New York City.

Politics

Third Parties: Anti-Jackson forces form the American Whig party; it lasts until 1852.

Government

Andrew Jackson (1767-1845) removes federal deposits from the Bank of the U.S. and deposits them in “pet” state banks around the country.

Government

The U.S. Senate censures Andrew Jackson (1767-1845) for taking federal deposits from the Bank of the U.S.; the censure is removed from the record the following year.

Government

The city of Toronto is incorporated.

Science

Amalgam (a mercury alloy) is introduced as a filling material for decayed teeth.

Medicine

An antidote for arsenic poisoning is discovered by Robert Bunsen (1811-1899).

Inventions

The mechanical reaper is patented by Cyrus H. McCormick (1809-1884).

Inventions

Computers: Charles Babbage (1791-1871)invents the principle of the "analytical engine," which is the forerunner of the computer.

Inventions

Jacob Perkins (1766-1849) invents an early refrigerator (really an early ice machine).

Education

Special Education: French teacher Louis Braille invents (1809-1852) a system of printed raised dots that enables the blind to read.

Education

Children''s Books: The fairy tale "The Three Bears" is popularized.

Arts and Letters

"The Last Days of Pompeii is published."

Lincoln, Mary

Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) enters politics in the Illinois legislature at the age of 25.

Johnson, Eliza

Robert Johnson (1834-1869), son of Andrew and Eliza Johnson, is born February 22.

Adams, Louisa

John Adams II (1803-1834), son of President John Quincy Adams and Louisa Adams, dies an alcohol related death on October 23.

Economics

Twenty-eight million acres of public land are offered for sale to those who wish to move west.

Discovery

The first settlement is established in Oregon.

Daily Life

Tomatoes are begun to be eaten in the U.S.; before this, people thought they were poisonous and they were only used as ornamental “love apples.”

Sports

Baseball: The first printed rules for a game much like baseball are found in the Book of Sports.

Sports

Baseball: Robin Carver publishes the "Book of Sports," the first American book on baseball.

Sports

Women in Sports: The first modern Lacrosse games are played. Lacrosse will become a major new sports opportunity for women in the 1990's with many colleges offering scholarship dollars. The original game was played by North American Indians.

Popular Culture

Madame Tussaud (1761-1850) opens her wax museum in London.

Social Issues

Native Americans: Under an 1828 treaty, the U.S. orders the Seminole Indians to leave Florida.

Social Issues

Native Americans: Four thousand Oglala people relocate to Fort Laramie to boost their fur trade with white people.

Reform

Labor Movement: The Factory Girls Association is organized in the Lowell textile mills; women workers stage their first strike, which fails.

Reform

Abolition Movement: Anti-abolition riots occur in New York City and Philadelphia.

Government

Congress pays off the national debt.

War

Mexican Wars: American settlers defeat a Mexican cavalry in the first battle of the Texas Revolution.

War

Indian Wars: A new Seminole War begins in Florida after the escape of Seminole leader Osceola.

Science

Hailey's comet appears in its usual 75-year cycle.

Inventions

The revolver is invented by Samuel Colt (1814-1862).

Inventions

Computers: Charles Babbage (1791-1871) invents a mechanical calculator.

Education

African American Education: A school that enrolls 14 Black students in New Hampshire is burned to the ground.

Education

Education of Women: Harriet Hunt (c.1805-?) is accepted at Harvard Medical School, but the male students riot and she is forced to withdraw.

Education

Education of Women: Education for girls is established in Panama.

Education

Children''s Books: Hans Christian Anderson (1805-1875) publishes a book of his "Fairy Tales."

Ideas

Alexis de Tocqueville (1805-1859) publishes his "Democracy in America," a work that is still quoted today.

Ideas

Women''s Rights Movement: Lydia Maria Child (1802-1880) publishes "History of the Condition of Women."

Jackson, Rachel

Assassination: President Andrew Jackson survives the first-ever assassination attempt on a U.S. president.

Taylor, Margaret

Sarah "Knox" Taylor Davis (1814-1835), daughter of Zachary and Margaret Taylor, dies September 15 of malaria.

Monroe, Elizabeth

Eliza Kortright Monroe Hay (1786-1835), daughter of President James Monroe and Elizabeth Monroe, dies in France at age 49, shortly after converting to the Catholic faith. Cause of death is unknown

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: 1,096 miles of railroad tracks are in use in the U.S.

Economics

The first cast-iron bridge in America is built over Dunlap’s Creek in Brownsville, Pennsylvania.

Economics

Native Americans: Gold is found on Cherokee lands in Georgia.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The "New York Herald" is published as a penny-paper.

Sports

For a purse of $1,000, nine runners participate in a 10-mile foot race on Long Island; the winner’s time is 59 minutes, 44 seconds.

Popular Culture

P.T. Barnum (1810-1891) begins his career as a showman in the U.S.

Popular Culture

A pseudoscience called “phrenology” becomes popular; it says that physiological features, especially of the head, determine character.

Religion

Women''s Firsts: Henrietta Hall Schuck becomes the first American female missionary in China at age 18.

Reform

Prison Reform: Mt. Pleasant Female Prison, the first American prison for women, is founded in New York.

Reform

Abolition Movement: Censorship efforts in Southern states expel abolitionists and forbid the mailing of antislavery propaganda.

Reform

Abolition Movement: Pro- and anti-slavery mobs clash in Charleston, South Carolina, in Boston, and in New York; in Boston, the pro-slavery attackers take William Lloyd Garrison (1805-1879) and parade him through the streets with a rope around his neck.

Law

Chief Justices: President Andrew Jackson(1767-1845) nominates Roger Brooke Taney (1777-1864) as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. He is confirmed by the Senate in 1836 and serves for twenty-eight years, the second-longest tenure of any Chief Justice.

Politics

Martin Van Buren (1782-1862) is elected as the 8th U.S. President and Richard M. Johnson (1780-1850) is elected as the nation's 9th Vice President.

Politics

Texas declares independence from Mexico.

Government

New State: Arkansas becomes the 25th state in the U.S.

Government

The Michigan territory is divided to create Wisconsin.

War

Mexican Wars: The battle of the Alamo takes placeover 13 days; less than 200 defenders are finally defeated by 2,500 Mexican soldiers.

Science

The first American botanical textbook, "Elements of Botany," is written by Asa Gray (1810-1888).

Science

Pepsin, the powerful ferment in gastric juice, is recognized by the German physiologist, Theodor Schwann (1810-1882).

Inventions

Francis Pettit Smith and John Ericcson (1803-1889) co-invent the propellor.

Education

Special Education: Laura Bridgman (1829-1889) becomes the first deaf-mute taught to communicate at the Perkins Institute.

Education

Public Education: The first McGuffey readers are published.

Education

Public Education: Child labor laws in Massachusetts require children to attend school for at least three months a year until they are 15.

Education

Higher Education: Education of Women: Women’s Colleges: Wesleyan College is chartered to Georgia and is known for granting the first college degrees to women.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Charles Dickens (1812-1870) writes "The Pickwick Papers."

Ideas

The first meeting of the Transcendentalist Club is held in Boston.

Lincoln, Mary

Mary Todd (1818-1882) enrolls for two more years at Ward’s academy.

Madison, Dolley

James Madison (1751-1835) dies at the Madisons' home at Montpelier, and is buried there.

Fillmore, Abigail

Millard Fillmore (1800-1874) is elected again as a Representative to Congress; serves until 1839.

Pierce, Jane

Franklin Pierce Jr. (1836), son of Franklin and Jane Pierce, is born February 2 and dies three days later on February 5.

Jefferson, Martha

Martha Washington Jefferson Randolph (1772-1836), daughter of Thomas and Martha Jefferson, dies of apoplexy on October 10.

Economics

American Money: With minimum regulation, a proliferation of 1,600 local state-chartered, private banks now issue paper money.

Daily Life

The Arc de Triumphe, begun 30 years earlier, is finished.

Daily Life

Gas stoves are manufactured for the first time.

Sports

Cricket: Batting pads for Cricket are invented.

Religion

The first Mormon Temple is dedicated in Kirtland, Ohio.

Social Issues

Native Americans: A written Seneca Indian language is devised by missionaries Laura Wright (1809-1886) and her husband.

Social Issues

Slavery: Texas wins independence from Mexico and legalizes slavery. Free blacks and mulattos are forbidden from entering the state.

Reform

Temperance Movement: The Ladies' American Home Education Society and Temperance Union is founded.

Reform

Abolition Movement: There are 500 active abolitionist societies in the North.

Reform

Labor Movement: At age 11, mill worker Harriet Jane Hanson Robinson leads her young co-workers out in support of older workers striking in protest over wage cuts.

Law

Membership on the Supreme Court is increased from seven to nine.

Government

President Andrew Jackson (1767-1845) recognizes the Republic of Texas on his last day in office, thereby preventing its admission as a slave territory.

Government

Martin Van Buren (1782-1862) is inaugurated as the 8th U.S. President and Richard M. Johnson (1780-1850) is inaugurated as the nation's 9th Vice President.

Government

New State: Michigan becomes the 26th state in the U.S.

Government

Presidents: Grover Cleveland (1837-1906), 22nd President of the U.S., is born in Caldwell, New Jersey.

War

Indian Wars: General Zachary Taylor tricks(1784-1850) Seminole leader Osceloa (c.1804-1838) and captures him.

Science

French mathematician Simeon Denis Poissson (1781-1840) develops the rules of probability by studying the incidence of death from mule kicks in the French army.

Inventions

Alfred Lewis Vail (1807-1859), Samuel Morse’s (1791-1872) assistant, develops the “Morse Code” of dots and dashes that will be used by telegraphers everywhere.

Inventions

John Deere (1804-1886) invents the steel-toothed plow.

Inventions

English schoolmaster, Rowland Hill (1744-1833) invents the postage stamp.

Education

Public Education: Horace Mann (1796-1959) becomes head of the newly formed Massachusetts State Board of Education. Edmund Dwight (1716-1755), a major industrialist, thinks a state board of education was so important to factory owners that he offered to supplement the state salary with extra money of his own.

Education

Higher Education: Education of Women: Women's Colleges: Mary Mason Lyon (1797-1849) opens Mt. Holyoke Seminary in Massachusetts, one of the first colleges for women.

Education

Freidrich Froebel (1782-1852) establishes the first kindergarten in Germany.

Education

Higher Education: Education of Women: Women’s Colleges: Mount Holyoke Female Seminary is founded and is chartered in 1888(becomes the model for other colleges in the future years).

Arts and Letters

Literature: Nathaniel Hawthorne’s (1804-1864) first work, "Twice-Told Tales" is published.

Ideas

Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882) publishes "The American Scholar."

Arthur, Ellen

Ellen Lewis Herndon (1837-1880), future wife of President Chester A. Arthur (1829–1886), is born August 30 in Culpepper Court House, Virginia.

Economics

Transportation: The first British liner made of iron—the Great Britain—is launched.

Economics

The economic Panic of 1837 is felt across the nation. Many people are out of work.

Daily Life

Victoria (1819-1901) becomes Queen of Great Britain. She is the first monarch to live in Buckingham Palace.

Daily Life

Magazines: Sarah Josepha Hale (1788-1879), author of "Mary Had A Little Lamb," begins editing the popular women''s magazine, "Godey''s Lady''s Book."

Sports

The first boat race, sponsored by the Castle Garden Boat Club, is held in Poughkeepsie, NY.

Sports

Women in Sports: Donald Walker's book, "Exercise for Ladies," warns women against horseback riding, because it deforms the lower part of the body.

Religion

American Presbyterians are split into the “old” and the “new.”

Reform

Abolition Movement: The first Anti-Slavery Convention of American Women is held in New York.

Reform

Labor Movement: The Grimké sisters found the National Female Anti-Slavery Society, one of the first to admit women of color from the start.

Government

Slavery: John Calhoun (1782-1850), Senator from South Carolina, introduces resolutions in the Senate affirming the legality of slavery.

War

Afrikaner (Boer) forces fight and defeat the Zulu at the Battle of Blood River in South Africa.

Science

The Royal Irish Academy elects astronomer Caroline Herschel to membership.

Science

The idea that cells are the basic building blocks of all living things is advanced.

Inventions

America’s first microscope is built by Charles A. Spencer (1813-1881).

Inventions

A one-day, brass movement clock is invented that is both accurate and inexpensive, giving rise to the term “Yankee ingenuity.”

Technology

Samuel Morse (1791-1872) gives the first demonstration of the telegraph.

Education

Education of Women: William Holmes MdGuffey (1800-1873) supports more liberal education for women.

Education

French philosopher Auguste Comte (1798-1857) gives the discipline of sociology its name.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Author James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851) publishes two novels criticizing American democracy; he is roundly criticized.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Edgar Allen Poe (1809-1849) writes "Ligeia," often called the first work of American science fiction.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Charles Dickens (1812-1870) writes "Oliver Twist" and "Nicholas Nickleby."

Harrison, Anna

William Henry Harrison (1802-1838), son of William Henry and Anna Harrison, is born September 3.

Economics

Transportation: The British liner Great Western sails from England on her maiden voyage; she is the first to cross the Atlantic regularly.

Economics

Transportation: The British steamship Sirius crosses the Atlantic solely on steam power in 18 days, 10 hours.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The New York "Herald" is the first U.S. newspaper to employ European correspondents.

Daily Life

The coronation of Queen Victoria (1819-1901) takes place a year after she ascends the throne.

Popular Culture

Jenny Lynd (1820-1887), the "Swedish Nightingale," makes her debut.

Social Issues

Native Americans: Fifteen thousand Cherokee Indians remaining in Georgia are moved by federal troops 800 miles westward in what becomes known as "the Trail of Tears."

Reform

Women's Suffrage: Widows with school-age children are allowed to vote in school board elections in Kentucky.

Reform

Abolution Movement: Angelina Grimké becomes the first woman to ever address an American legislature, speaking on abolition in Massachusetts.

Law

Women's Firsts: Mississippi becomes the first state to give the right to own property to women, although they must have their husbands’ permission.

Politics

Third Parties: The first anti-slavery political party, the Liberty Party, runs James Birney (1792-1857) for president. He loses.

Government

The kingdom of Belgium is recognized by all countries of Europe.

War

The first Opium War between Britain and China begins.

Science

Ozone is discovered and named.

Inventions

The first electric clock is invented.

Inventions

The first bicycle is constructed by Scottish inventor Kirkpatrick Macmillan (1813-1878).

Technology

Louis Daguerre (1787-1851) takes the first photograph of the moon.

Technology

Telegraph inventor Samuel F.B. Morse (1791-1872) makes the first daguerreotype portraits to be produced in the U.S.

Education

The Lowell Institute in Boston is founded to provide free lectures by eminent scholars.

Education

A College of Dental Surgery opens in Baltimore.

Education

Teacher Education: The first public normal school (teachers' college) is founded in Lexington, Massachusetts.

Ideas

The unofficial headquarters of the Transcendentalist Club is Elizabeth Palmer Peabody’s (1804-1894) Boston bookshop.

Madison, Dolley

Dolley Madison (1768-1849) moves back to Montpelier to try farming.

Harrison, Anna

Carter Bassett Harrison (1812-1839), son of William Henry and Anna Harrison, dies August 12.

Lincoln, Mary

Mary Todd (1818-1882) goes to live with her sister, Elizabeth Edwards (Mrs. Ninian), in Springfield, Illinois; she meets Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) there at a dance.

Tyler, Julia

Julia Gardner Tyler (1820-1889) is the first President's wife to pose for a department store advertisement.

Pierce, Jane

Frank Robert Pierce (1839-1843), son of Franklin and Jane Pierce, is born August 27.

Economics

The manufacture of rubber is pioneered by Charles Goodyear (1800-1860).

Daily Life

Magazines: The Lowell mill girls begin publishing "The Lowell Offering," a monthly magazine of poetry, fiction, and essays that becomes internationally known.

Sports

Horse Racing: The first Grand National horse race is run in Britain.

Sports

Baseball: Abner Doubleday (1819-1893) lays out the first baseball field and the first game is played.

Politics

William Henry Harrison (1773-1841) is elected the 9th President of the U.S., and John Tyler (1790-1862) is elected as the 10th Vice President on the Whig ticket.

Government

Upper and lower Canada are united by an Act of Parliament.

Government

Stamps: The first postage stamps appear in Britain, bearing Queen Victoria's (1837-1901) profile. The tiny stamps (3/4 by 7/8 inches) are printed using only black ink. Brazil is the second nation to have postage stamps.

Science

Louis Agassiz (1807-1873) publishes a work on the movements and effects of glaciers.

Science

The fundamentals of artificial fertilizer are discovered.

Science

James Joule (1818-1889) develops the idea that energy can be converted from one state to another, but cannot be destroyed.

Medicine

The American Society of Dental Surgeons is organized in New York City.

Inventions

Englishman John Herschel (1792-1871) invents the blueprint.

Education

Women’s Colleges: St. Mary-of-the-Woods College is founded in Indiana as the first of many women's institutions that are established by Catholic Sisters and is chartered in 1846.

Education

Public Education: Irish Catholics in New York City struggle for local neighborhood control of schools as a way of preventing their children from being force-fed a Protestant curriculum.

Ideas

Margaret Fuller (1810-1850) becomes editor of "The Dial," an influential transcentalist publication.

Adams, Abigail

"Selected letters" by Abigail Adams (1744-1818) on social, political, and other matters are published.

Harrison, Anna

Benjamin Harrison (1806-1840), son of William Henry and Anna Harrison, is born.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: There are 2,816 miles of railroad in operation in the U.S.

Economics

Transportation: The Cunard steamship line is established, the first with scheduled transatlantic sailings.

Economics

Population: The sixth national census shows a population of more than 17 million; 600,000 immigrants have arrived since 1830, 207,281 from Ireland.

Daily Life

Women''s Firsts: Elizabeth Peabody (1804-1894) becomes the first woman publisher in Boston and the U.S.

Daily Life

History of Toys: The first American dollmaker is granted a patent and dolls begin to be mass-produced in America for the first time.

Sports

The game of bowling (called nine pins) becomes popular in the U.S.

Popular Culture

The expression, "O.K." is first used; it refers to “Old Kinderhook,” birthplace of Martin Van Buren (1782-1862), and is also the name of a Democratic Club in New York City.

Popular Culture

The ritual of afternoon tea is introduced in Britain by Anna, the Duchess of Bedford (1788-1861).

Popular Culture

James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851) writes "The Pathfinder."

Social Issues

Immigration: Over a million Irish immigrants arrive in the United States, driven out of their homes in Ireland by the potato famine.

Social Issues

Slavery: Slaves on the Spanish ship Amistad mutiny and sale the ship into a Connecticut harbor.

Social Issues

Native Americans: An increasing flow of emigrants to Oregon and California bring cholera, smallpox, and measles to the Indians as well as accelerated buffalo hunting for the fur trade.

Reform

Abolition Movement: Lydia Maria Child (1802-1880) and her husband, David Lee Child (1794-1874), edit the Anti-Slavery Standard until 1844.

Reform

Labor Movement: The 10-hour day is established for federal employees by a Presidential order.

Reform

Abolition Movement: Women's Rights Movement: William Lloyd Garrison refuses to speak at the World’s Anti-Slavery Convention in London because women have been excluded from the meeting.

Reform

Abolution Movement: Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton are chosen as delegates to the World’s Anti-Slavery Convention in London.

Law

Slavery: Affirming a strong argument made by John Quincy Adams (1767-1848), the Supreme Court rules that the slaves who took over the Amistad may be freed. Thirty-five freed men return to Africa.

Government

President William Henry Harrison (1773-1841) dies in office and is replaced by Vice-President John Tyler (1790-1852) as the 10th U.S. president; no new Vice President is selected.

Government

Tyler’s cabinet resigns over his veto of a bill creating a national bank; Daniel Webster remains Secretary of State.

Government

New Zealand becomes a British crown colony.

War

Mexican Wars: Texas soldiers invade New Mexico and claim all land east of the Rio Grande. Their efforts are thwarted by Governor Manuel Armijo (1793-1853).

Medicine

James Braid (1795-1860), Scottish surgeon, investigates the use of hypnosis.

Inventions

Adolphe Sax (1814-1894) invents the saxophone.

Inventions

Cornstarch is patented by Orlando Jones.

Inventions

Samuel Slocum (1792- 1861) patents the stapler.

Technology

The first U.S. steam fire engine is tested in New York City.

Education

Education of Women: Oberlin College in Ohio is the first to grant college degrees to women.

Education

New England transcendentalists found the commune and school, Brook Farm.

Education

Education of Women: Catherine Beecher (1800-1878) publishes "A Treatise on Domestic Economy."

Education

Children''s Books: Harriet Martineau (1802-1876) publishes a collection of children’s stories, "The Playfellow."

Education

Children’s Books: Unlike the early nineteenth-century Rousseauesque castaways, Victorian versions of the Crusoe story stressed adventure, manliness, and self-help. Well-known examples include Captain Marryat's reassuringly Evangelical Masterman Ready.

Education

Children’s Books: Frederick Marryatt (1792-1848), an ex-naval officer who wrote a whole series of shipboard novels. His Masterman Ready, or the Wreck of the Pacific, first published in three volumes in 1841-42.

Ideas

Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882) writes "Self Reliance."

Madison, Dolley

Dolley Madison (1764-1849) returns to Washington, DC.

Pierce, Jane

Benjamin Pierce (1841-1853), son of Franklin and Jane Pierce, is born April 13.

Harrison, Anna

Anna Symmes Harrison (1775-1864) is the first President's wife to never get to see or live in the White House because her husband, William Henry Harrison, died before she could join him there. President Harrison delivered the longest inaugural address (105 minutes) on a very cold winter day and contracted pneumonia.

Tyler, Letitia

Letitia Christian Tyler (1790-1842) is the First Vice President's wife to become First Lady at the death of the former president.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The "New York Tribune" begins publishing, edited by Horace Greeley.

Popular Culture

Edgar Allan Poe (1809-1849) publishes the first detective story, "Murders in the Rue Morgue."

Popular Culture

James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851) writes "The Deerslayer."

Popular Culture

Charles Dickens (1812-1870) writes "The Old Curiosity Shop."

Social Issues

Slavery: Texas gives its citizens the right and responsibility to apprehend runaway slaves and turn them over to the law so that they may be returned to their owners or sold at auction.

Social Issues

Slavery: Slaves aboard the U.S.S. Creole take over the ship and sail it to Nassau, where they become free.

Government

The border between the U.S. and Canada is established from Maine to the Great Lakes.

Government

American author Washington Irving (1783-1859) is appointed ambassador to Spain.

Government

Stamps: The first adhesive postage stamps are used in the U.S.

War

Indian Wars: After destroying the Seminoles’ crops and villages, U.S. troops force a peace treaty and move them to Indian Territory in eastern Oklahoma.

Science

The Doppler Effect is described by Christian Doppler (1803-1853).

Medicine

The first surgery using an anesthetic—ether—is performed by Dr. Crawford Long (1815-1878) of Georgia.

Inventions

Joseph Dart builds the first grain elevator.

Education

Women's Colleges: Augusta Female Seminary—later Mary Baldwin Seminary, then College) is founded by Presbyterians in Staunton, VA; it will become one of the best-known early 19th century schools for girls.

Arts and Letters

The New York Philharmonic Orchestra gives its first performance.

Ideas

Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882) becomes editor of "The Dial," an influential transcendentalist publication.

Tyler, Letitia

Letitia Christian Tyler (1790-1842) dies of a second stroke in the White House on September 10. She is the first First Lady to die during her husband's presidency.

Mary Todd (1818-1882) and Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) are married on November 4 at her sister Elizabeth’s house in Springfield.

Harrison, Anna

Mary Symmes Harrison Thornton (1809-1842), daughter of William Henry and Anna Harrison, dies November 16.

Discovery

John Charles Fremont (1813-1890) maps the Oregon Trail and wagon trains begin to move west.

Daily Life

Disasters: Mount St. Helens in Washington state erupts.

Sports

Horse Racing: Horse races at the Union Course on Long Island attract thousands of fans.

Popular Culture

P.T. Barnum (1810-1891)exhibits the young midget, Tom Thumb (Charles Sherwood Stratton, c. 1850).

Reform

Labor Movement: The landmark Supreme Court decision, Commonwealth v. Hunt, rules that trade union are not illegal, the striking for a closed shop is legal, and that unions cannot be held responsible for illegal actions by individuals.

Politics

Jefferson Davis (1808-1889) enters politics as a delegate to the Democratic State Convention in Alabama.

Government

Diplomatic representatives are sent to Hawaii by the U.S.

Government

Presidents: William McKinley (1843-1901), 25th President of the U.S. is born in Niles, Ohio.

Government

The first town meeting is held in Boston at Faneuil Hall.

Inventions

A U.S. patent for a hand-cranked ice cream freezer is granted to Nancy M. Johnson.

Inventions

Alexander Bain (1818-1903) of Scotland invents the facsimile.

Technology

Airplanes: William Samuel Henson, England, proposes the Aerial Steam Carriage in "Mechanics Magazine," the first known design for a propeller-driven fixed-wing aircraft.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Alfred Lord Tennyson (1809-1892) writes "Morte d’Arthur" and "Locksley Hall."

Ideas

Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855) lays the foundations for existentialism by stressing the primacy of the individualand the inevitability of suffering.

Ideas

Women''s Rights Movement: Margaret Fuller (1810-1850) writes “The Great Lawsuit: Man versus Men, Woman versus Women.”

Lincoln, Mary

Mary Todd (1818-1882) and Abraham Lincoln’s(1809-1865) son Robert Todd (1843-1926) is born August 1 in Springfield, in the Globe Tavern, where the Lincolns lived for a time after their marriage.

Pierce, Jane

Frank Robert Pierce (1839-1843), son of Franklin and Jane Pierce, dies November 14 of typhoid fever; Franklin Pierce begins to wonder if God is taking his children.

Economics

Samuel Morse (1791-1872) starts to build a telegraph line between Baltimore and Washington, DC.

Discovery

John Charles Fremont (1813-1890) crosses the Rocky Mountains into California.

Daily Life

Fashion: A new form of female dress--bloomers--is introduced by Amelia Bloomer (1818 - 1894).

Daily Life

The first use of the word “millionaire” occurs in newspapers.

Daily Life

The History of Toys: The Mansion of Happiness is developed by S.B. Ives in Salem, Massachusetts. It becomes the first board game sold in the United States.

Sports

Skiing begins as a sport in Norway.

Sports

Rowing is introduced at Harvard.

Popular Culture

American Theathre: The first minstrel show is performed in New York City.

Popular Culture

Charles Dickens (1812-1870) publishes "A Christmas Carol."

Religion

The Jewish organization B’nai B’rith is founded.

Religion

Sojourner Truth (1797-1883) becomes a traveling evangelical preacher.

Reform

Labor Movement: The Lowell Female Labor Reform Association wins the first investigation of labor conditions by a government agency.

Reform

Mental Health Movement: Dorothea Dix (1802-1887) pushes reforms in the way mental health patients are treated through the Massachusetts legislature.

Politics

James Knox Polk (1795-1849) is elected as the 11th President of the U.S., and George Dallas (1792-1864) is elected as the nation's 11th Vice President.

Government

The first treaty of peace, amity, and commerce is signed by the U.S. with China.

Government

A plan to annex Texas is rejected by the Senate.

War

A gun on the new frigate Princeton, being demonstrated by the U.S. Navy, explodes, killing the Secretaries of State and the Navy, as well as other government officials.

Medicine

Nitrous oxide is first used in dentistry.

Inventions

Paper made from wood pulp is invented by Friedrich Keller.

Inventions

Englishman John Mercer (1829- 1897) invents mercerized cotton.

Technology

Charles Goodyear (1800-1860) receives a patent for rubber vulcanization.

Technology

Samuel F.B. Morse (1791-1872) sends his first telegraph message to an associate 45 miles away: the message is, “What hath God wrought?”

Arts and Letters

Literature: Alexander Dumas (1802-1870) writes "The Three Musketeers."

Ideas

Karl Marx (1818-1883) writes of religion as “the sigh of the oppressed creature, the feelings of a heartless world…the opium of the people.”

Madison, Dolley

Dolley Madison (1768-1849) sells Montpelier and is the first First Lady to be granted a permanent seat on the floor of the House of Representatives.

Lincoln, Mary

Mary Todd (1818-1882) and Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) buy a home from the Episcopal minister who had married them. This will prove to be the only home the couple ever own.

Tyler, Julia

Julia Gardner (1820-1889) is the first woman to marry an American President while he was in office.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy Webb's (1831-1889) mother, Maria Webb, moves her family to Delaware, Ohio, so that her sons, Joseph and James, can enroll in the newly formed Methodist college, Ohio Wesleyan University.

Economics

Morse’s (1791-1872) telegraph is used for the first time between Baltimore and Washington, DC.

Daily Life

The first private bath in an American hotel is built in the New York Hotel.

Sports

Cricket: The first official international cricket match is played: Canada vs. United States.

Religion

Brigham Young (1801-1877) is chosen to replace Joseph Smith (1805-1844) as leader of the Mormons.

Religion

The Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) is founded in England.

Reform

Anti-Child Labor Movement: The Factory Act in England prohibits children under 13 from working more than 6 ½ hours a day.

Government

Congress establishes the first week in November for election day; the harvest is over but the roads are still passable.

Government

The U.S. Senate overrides a presidential veto for the first time.

Government

New State: Florida becomes the 27th state in the Union.

Government

New State: Texas becomes the 28th state in the Union.

Government

James Knox Polk (1795-1849) is inaugurated as the 11th President of the U.S., and George Dallas (1792-1864) is inaugurated as the nation's 11th Vice President.

Inventions

American Elias Howe (1819-1867) invents a sewing machine.

Inventions

Sarah Mather receives a patent for a submarine telescope.

Inventions

Rubber bands are invented.

Inventions

The first pneumatic tires are patented in England.

Technology

Airplanes: William Samuel Henson and John Stringfellow (1799-1883) attempt to form the Aerial Transit Company, which (if only they had a practical airplane), would have been the world's first airline. To drum up support, they build and test a model of Henson's aerial carriage with a 20-foot wingspan. It makes brief glides, but does not sustain flight.

Education

The first written examinations in elementary schools begin in Boston.

Education

Higher Education: The U.S. Naval Academy opens at Annapolis, MD.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Edgar Allan Poe (1809-1849) publishes his poem, “The Raven” with the famous line, “Quoth the Raven, Nevermore.”

Ideas

Catherine Beecher writes An Essay on Slavery and Abolitionism with Reference to the Duty of American Women to Their Country

Ideas

Margaret Fuller publishes Women in the Nineteenth Century, an expansion of her earlier essay calling for equality for women.

Jackson, Rachel

Andrew Jackson (1767-1845), 7th President of the U.S., dies at the Hermitage in Nashville, Tennessee.

Polk, Sarah

Sarah Childress Polk (1803-1891) is the first First Lady to be "selected" by the previous President for her position (President Tyler told newly elected James Polk that he needed to get married and should marry Sarah). As a result of this selection, Sarah is the first First Lady to serve as her husband's personal secretary.

Harrison, Anna

Anna Tuthill Harrison Taylor (1813-1845), daughter of William Henry and Anna Harrison, dies July 5.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy Webb (1831-1889) attends classes at Ohio Wesleyan and receives some credits from the College, although female students are not officially enrolled there.

Economics

Power looms for weaving carpets and tapestries are built by Erastus Bigelow (1814-1879).

Daily Life

The Eastern Hotel in Boston becomes the first steam-heated building in the U.S.

Daily Life

Magazines: "Scientific American Magazine" begins publication.

Religion

Children’s Books: "Letter to My Young Cousin" by American Sunday school Union. This is a book of religious advice on behavior in the family, written as from one teenage girl to another.

Social Issues

Immigration: The potato crop fails in Europe, hitting Ireland especially hard; Irish immigrants continue to flock to the U.S.

Reform

Labor Movement: The Industrial Congress of the U.S., one of the earliest labor unions, is organized.

Government

New State: Iowa becomes the 29th state in the U.S.

War

Mexican War: The U.S. declares war on Mexico over California. U.S. forces under General Zachary Taylor (1784-1850) defeat the Mexicans at Palo Alto, the Navy occupies Monterey, and the territory of New Mexico is annexed to the U.S.

Science

Caroline Herschel (1750-1848) is awarded the King of Prussia’s Gold Medal for science.

Science

The planet Neptune is discovered by German astronomer Johann Gottfied Galle.

Medicine

Dr. William Morton (1819-1868), a Massachusetts dentist, is the first to use anesthesia for tooth extraction.

Inventions

Elias Howe (1819-1867) receives a patent for his sewing machine.

Education

The Smithsonian Institution is established in Washington, DC as a center for scientific research.

Education

Education of Women: The National Academy of Design accepts women students.

Ideas

Catherine Beecher (1800-1878) publishes "The Evils Suffered by American Women and American Children."

Lincoln, Mary

With Mary’s (1818-1882) encouragement, Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) is elected to the U.S. House of Representatives.

Lincoln, Mary

Edward Baker (1846-1850), son of Mary Todd and Abraham Lincoln, born on March 10 in Springfield.

Harrison, Anna

Elizabeth "Betsey" Bassett Harrison Short (1796-1846), the oldest daughter of William Henry and Anna Harrison, is born September 29.

Harrison, Anna

Elizabeth "Betsey" Bassett Harrison Short (1796-1846), the oldest daughter of William Henry and Anna Harrison, dies September 26.

Tyler, Julia

David Gardiner "Gardie" Tyler (1846-1927), the first son born to John Tyler and his second wife Julia, is born on July 12.

Daily Life

Women''s Firsts: Sarah Bagley (1806-1848) becomes the first woman telegrapher in the U.S.

Daily Life

The first painted Christmas card is designed.

Sports

Baseball: New York surveyor Alexander Cartwrite codifies the rules of baseball.

Sports

Baseball: The first recorded baseball game is played in Hoboken, NJ.

Popular Culture

Edward Lear (1812-1888) publishes his "Book of Nonsense."

Religion

The Mormons under Brigham Young (1801-1877) move westward beyond the U.S. borders to the Great Salt Lake.

Religion

The American Missionary Association is founded, combining Protestant evangelicalism with abolitionism.

Social Issues

Slavery: During the Mexican-American War, Mexico is defeated and forced to yield an enormous amount of territory to the United States. Americans then wrestle with a controversial topic: Should slavery be permitted in the new lands?

Reform

Capital Punishment: Michigan becomes the first state to outlaw capital punishment.

Government

California comes under U.S. control.

Government

Liberia, colonized by American ex-slaves, becomes the first independent republic in Africa.

Government

Stamps: United States stamps debut. The first two feature George Washington (1732-1799) and Ben Franklin (1706-1790).

Science

Maria Mitchell (1818-1889) discovers a new comet which is named after her.

Science

Joseph Leidy (1823-1891) suggests that the environment affects changes (evolution) within a species.

Medicine

Childbirth assisted by anesthetic (chloroform) first takes place.

Medicine

The American Medical Association is organized in Philadelphia.

Medicine

Epidemics: Another world-wide epidemic of influenza occurs.

Medicine

Antiseptics are developed by Ignaz Semmelweis (1818-1865), a Hungarian.

Inventions

The ophthalmoscope is invented by Charles Babbage (1791-1871) .

Education

Women's Colleges: Rockford Female Seminary (later College) is founded in Rockford, IL; it is called the “Mount Holyoke of the West.”

Arts and Letters

Literature: Emily Bronte (1818-1848) writes "Wuthering Heights" and Charlotte Bronte (1816-1855) writes "Jane Eyre."

Fillmore, Abigail

The Fillmore (1800-1874) family moves to Albany when Fillmore is elected state comptroller; the children are away at boarding school and college.

Mckinley, Ida

Ida Saxon (1847-1907), future wife of President William McKinley (1843–1901), is born in Canton, Ohio on June 8.

Tyler, Letitia

Alice Tyler Denison (1847-1854), daughter of John and Letitia Tyler, is born March 23.

Economics

Evaporated milk is made for the first time.

Daily Life

Disasters: Forty-seven of the eighty-seven members of the Donner Party die while trapped in the Sierra Mountains.

Daily Life

The California town of Yerba Buena is renamed San Francisco.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The telegraph is used to transfer stories over great distances, thus making news more immediate.

Religion

The Mormons found Salt Lake City, Utah.

Social Issues

Immigration: The first Chinese immigrants arrive in the U.S.

Social Issues

Immigration: Irish immigration reaches 105,000, 3 times more than the year before.

Social Issues

Native Americans: Taos Rebellion against the U.S. military occurs.

Reform

Abolition Movement: Frederick Douglass (1817-1895) , escaped ex-slave, begins publishing his abolitionist newspaper, the North Star.

Reform

Anti-Child Labor Movement: Women and children in Britain may only work a 10-hour day.

Politics

Zachary Taylor (1784-1850) is elected 12th President of the U.S. on the Whig ticket; Millard Fillmore is elected as the 12th Vice President.

Politics

Third Parties: Former Democratic President Martin van Buren (1782-1862) becomes the presidential candidate of the anti-slavery Free-Soil Party. He wins 10 percent of the popular vote, and is credited with siphoning off enough votes from Democratic candidate Lewis Cass (1782-1866 ) to help Whig candidate Zachary Taylor (1784- 1850) win the election.

Government

New State: Wisconsin becomes the 30th state in the U.S.

War

Mexican Wars: The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ends the war with Mexico, the U.S. receives New Mexico and California as well as parts of Nevada, Utah, Arizona and Colorado for $15 million.

Science

Maria Mitchell (1818-1889) becomes the first woman to be elected a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Science

Hyperion, the eighth moon of Saturn, is discovered.

Medicine

Epidemics: More than 5,000 deaths are caused by a cholera epidemic in New York City.

Inventions

Margaret (Mattie) Knight (1838-1914) (10) invents a stop-motion device to keep shuttles from sliding out of the looms and injuring workers.

Inventions

Chewing gum is invented by John B. Curtis (1827–1897) of Maine.

Inventions

Waldo Hanchett patents the dental chair.

Education

Women’s Colleges: Moore College of Art is founded in Philadelphia (then called the Philadelphia School of Design for Women); it is the first and only women's visual arts college in the nation--and one of only two in the world.

Education

Public Education: Massachusetts Reform School at Westboro opens, where children who have refused to attend public schools are sent. This begins a long tradition of "reform schools," which combine the education and juvenile justice systems.

Education

Public Education: The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo guarantees citizenship rights to everyone living in new American areas, mostly Mexicans and Native people. It also guarantees the continued use of the Spanish language, including in education. One hundred fifty years later, in 1998, California breaks that treaty, by passing Proposition 227, which would make it illegal for teachers to speak Spanish in public schools.

Education

Education of Women: A medical school for women opens with 12 students in Boston.

Education

Libraries: Boston Public Library becomes the first publicly supported major urban library.

Ideas

Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) publish "The Communist Manifesto."

Tyler, Julia

John Alexander "Alex" Tyler (1848-1883), son of John Tyler and his second wife Julia, is born on April 7.

Tyler, Letitia

Mary Tyler Jones (1815-1848), the first daughter born to John and Letitia Christian Tyler, dies June 17.

Taylor, Margaret

Margaret Smith Taylor (1788-1852) is the only First Lady whose portrait does not hang in the White House. She refused to ever have it made.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy Webb (1831-1889) meets Rutherford B. Hayes for the first time when he is visiting her town with his mother. She begins college at the Cincinnati Wesleyan Female College this year as well.

Adams, Louisa

John Quincy Adams (1767-1848), son of Abigail and John Adams, dies of a massive stroke on February 23.

Economics

Gold is first discovered in California, in Sutter's mill. After President Polk (1795-1849) announces the news in December, the gold rush begins soon after.

Daily Life

Niagara Falls stops flowing for the first time in history because of an ice jam in the Niagara River.

Popular Culture

Stephen Foster (1826-1864) writes “Oh, Susannah,” which becomes popular among the “49ers” and establishes his reputation as a song writer.

Religion

Spiritualism becomes popular in the U.S.

Social Issues

Native Americans: The California Gold Rush begins, increasing Western expansion across former Native American lands.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: The National Convention of Colored Freedmen held in Cleveland, Ohio resolves that women should be elected delegates on an equal basis with men.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: The first Women’s Rights convention is held in Seneca Falls, NY.

Government

Zachary Taylor (1784-1850) is inaugurated as the 12th President of the U.S. and Millard Fillmore is inaugurated as the 12th Vice President.

Government

Thomas Ewing (1829-1896) of Ohio is appointed as the first Secretary of the Interior, a department created to meet the needs of western settlers.

Government

Congress establishes the Minnesota territory.

Science

Jeffries Wyman (1814-1874) describes the similarities between the skeletons of apes and humans.

Medicine

Women's Firsts: Female doctors are permitted to practice medicine for the first time in the U.S., and Elizabeth Blackwell (1821-1910) becomes the first woman physician in the U.S.

Inventions

The safety pin is invented by Walter Hunt (1796-1859) , trying to satisfy a $15 debt; he spends 3 hours bending wire into various forms.

Inventions

Mary Ann Woodward patents a fan that attaches to a rocking chair.

Technology

Airplanes: Sir George Cayley (1773-1857), builds a small glider designed to lift about 80 pounds of the ground. He refers to it as his Boy Glider. It is the first recorded manned (or boyed) fixed-wing aircraft. It lifts a 10-year old boy off the ground for a few yards on test runs. Cayley also flew it in a high wind like a kite, tethered to the ground.

Education

Children’s Books: Anna Maria Hall (1800-1881) is one of the most prolific Victorian writers for children, best known for such moral tales as "Grandmamma's Pockets."

Education

The Free Academy in New York City opens; it will become the College of the City of New York and offer free education to the children of New York’s working class.

Madison, Dolley

Dolley Madison (1768-1849) dies on July 12 at the age of 81.

Polk, Sarah

James K. Polk (1795-1849) is the first President to be photographed while in office; he dies on June 15 in Nashville, Tennessee.

Fillmore, Abigail

The family moves to Washington.

Lincoln, Mary

Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) applies for a patent on a floating dry dock; he is the only U.S. President to do so.

Harrison, Caroline

Caroline Harrison (1832-1892) meets Benjamin Harrison (1831-1901) , a student of her father’s in Cincinnati.

Tyler, Julia

Julia Tyler Spencer (1849-1871), daughter of John Tyler and his second wife Julia, is born on December 25.

Economics

Seven thousand “49ers” invade California in a search for gold.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: The Pacific Railroad Company is chartered, the first railroad west of the Mississippi River.

Economics

Women''s Rights Movement: Amelia Bloomer (1818 - 1894) begins publishing "The Lily," moving it to Ohio in 1853 and employing female typesetters in spite of a strike by males on the staff.

Sports

The Pearl of Bermuda beats the U.S. yacht Brenda in the first recognized international yacht race.

Social Issues

Native Americans: The giant redwood trees in California are named Sequoias in honor of the Cherokee Indian Chief, Sequoya (c.1770-1843).

Social Issues

Slavery: California holds a convention, adopting a constitution that forbids slavery and requests admission to the Union.

Social Issues

Immigration: The California Gold Rush sparks first mass immigration from China.

Reform

Abolition Movement: Maryland slave Harriet Tubman (c.1820-1913) escapes to the North with some help from her friends.

Government

Slavery: The Compromise of 1850 is passed after bitter debates about slavery in new territories and states.

Government

Vice President Millard Fillmore (1800-1847) becomes the 13th President of the U.S. on the death of Zachary Taylor. No new Vice President is selected.

Government

New State: California becomes the 31st state in the U.S.

Government

The city of Los Angeles is incorporated.

Government

New Mexico (which included present day Arizona, southern Colorado, southern Utah, and southern Nevada) is designated a territory, but denied statehood.

Science

The inner-most ring of Saturn is discovered.

Inventions

The continuous stitch sewing machine is invented by Isaac Singer (1811-1875).

Inventions

Joel Houghton is granted the first dishwasher patent in 1850.

Technology

Newspapers: Powerful, giant presses appear, and they are able to print ten thousand complete papers per hour.

Technology

The first clear photograph of the moon is made (a daguerreotype).

Education

Education of Women: The Female Medical College of Pennsylvania is founded.

Education

Public Education: One of the first “free,” or public, schools in New Jersey is founded by Clara Barton (1821-1912).

Education

Children’s Books: "Three Little Kittens" and other stories from Mama Lovechild''s Series were issued by the American toy and game publisher, McLoughlin Brothers.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1806-1861) writes "Sonnets from the Portuguese."

Arts and Letters

Literature: Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864) writes "The Scarlet Letter."

Lincoln, Mary

Edward Baker Lincoln (1846-1850), son of Mary Todd and Abraham Lincoln, dies of tuberculosis at age 3, on February 1.

Lincoln, Mary

William Wallace Lincoln (1850-1862), son of Mary Todd and Abraham Lincoln, is born on December 21.

Taylor, Margaret

President Zachary Taylor (1784-1850), 12th President of the U.S., dies of indigestion on July 9 in Washington D.C. after less than a year-and-a-half in office on .

Fillmore, Abigail

The first library in the White House is established by Abigail Fillmore (1798-1853); She used her furniture money to buy the books. In addition to the library, she also had the first White House bathtub installed and replaced the fireplace used for cooking with the first White House cookstove.

Tyler, Letitia

Elizabeth "Lizzie" Tyler Waller (1823-1850), daughter of John and Letitia Tyler, dies June 1 from childbirth complications.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy Webb Hayes (1831-1889) is the first First Lady to earn a college degree from Cincinnati Wesleyan.

Monroe, Elizabeth

Maria Hester Monroe Gouverneur (1803-1850) President James Monroe and Elizabeth Monroe, dies at the age of 47.

Grant, Julia

Fredrick Dent Grant (1850-1912), son of Ulysses and Julia Grant, is born May 30.

Economics

Young Bavarian-American Levi Strauss (1829-1902) invents blue jeans.

Economics

Population: The population of the U.S. is 23 million (3.2 million black slaves).

Daily Life

Fashion: Crinolines become popular in the U.S., later to be replaced by hoop skirts.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The first "pictorial" weekly newspapers emerge; for the first time they feature extensive illustrations of news events.

Popular Culture

Charles Dickens (1812-1870) publishes "David Copperfield."

Popular Culture

P.T. Barnum (1810-1891) brings Jenny Lind (1820-1887) to sing in the U.S.

Popular Culture

Steven Foster (1826-1864) writes “Camptown Races.”

Social Issues

Native Americans: Silversmithing is introduced to the Navajo Indians, who make it an art form.

Social Issues

Slavery: The Compromise of 1850 includes the Fugitive Slave Act, a law designed to assist in the recovery of runaway slaves by increasing federal officers and denying fugitive slaves a right to a jury trial.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: Women gain the right to own land in Oregon.

Reform

Abolition Movement: Harriet Tubman (c.1820-1913) begins to lead slaves to freedom on the Underground Railroad. She makes 19 trips back to the South to free about 300 slaves.

Government

American Money: Three-cent coins are authorized by Congress.

Government

National Capital: The dome on top of the Capitol Building is designed.

Science

Understanding of the rotation of the earth is advanced.

Medicine

Elizabeth Blackwell (1821-1910) sets up a small medical clinic in a New York City tenement district.

Medicine

The use of glass eyes is introduced; many think they will restore sight.

Education

Libraries: The first law allowing towns to support free libraries through taxes is passed in Massachusetts.

Education

Teacher Education: White American education pioneer Myrrilla Miner opens a teaching college for black women in Washington, DC, the Miner Normal School, amid threats, arson attempts, and stone-throwing mobs.

Education

Libraries: Fire at the Library of Congress burns two-thirds of its collection, 900 of which have still to be replaced.

Education

Public Education: State of Massachusetts passes its first compulsory education law. The goal is to make sure that the children of poor immigrants get "civilized" and learn obedience and restraint, so they make good workers and don't contribute to social upheaval.

Arts and Letters

Opera: Giuseppe Verdi’s (1813-1901) opera "Rigoletto" is first performed in Venice.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Herman Melville (1819-1891) publishes "Moby Dick."

Tyler, Julia

Lachlan Tyler (1851-1902), son of John Tyler and his second wife Julia, is born December 2.

Hayes, Lucy

Rutherford B. Hayes (1822-1881) asks Lucy Webb (1831-1889) to marry him; she accepts.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The "New York Times" begins publishing.

Daily Life

The first double-decker omnibus, drawn by horses, appears in England.

Daily Life

Fashion: Amelia Jenks Bloomer (1818-1894) gives her name to “bloomers,” a split skirt designed by Elizabeth Smith Miller (1822-1911) for bicycle riding.

Sports

In the America’s Cup race, the U.S. yacht America beats the British yacht Aurora on Cowes, England.

Sports

Baseball: The first baseball uniforms are worn by the New York Knickerbockers—straw hats, white shirts, and blue trousers.

Popular Culture

Stephen Foster (1826-1864) publishes “Old Folks at Home.”

Popular Culture

Children’s Books: The American abolitionist novel Uncle Tom's Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe (1812-1896) was pirated and abridged to become a children's classic. Although the book presents both African-American and white characters through melodrama and stereotype, the novel has received increasing critical reappraisal in recent years.

Religion

The first Young Men’s Christian Association (WMCA) opens in Boston.

Social Issues

Native Americans: The Sioux Indians give their Iowa lands, and most of their lands in Minnesota to the U.S.

Reform

Temperance Movement: Prohibition against liquor is begun in Maine and Illinois.

Reform

Native Americans: Bishop Jean Baptiste Lamy (1818-1888) arrives in New Mexico and establishes schools, hospitals and orphanages throughout the territory.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: Sojourner Truth (1797-1883) gives her famous "Ain't I a Woman" speech at the Women's Rights Convention in Akron, Ohio.

Reform

Harriet Beecher Stow publishes the first installment of "Uncle Tom's Cabin" in an abolitionist weekly. After 40 more installments, it is published as a book in 1852.

Politics

Democrat Franklin Pierce (1804-1869) is elected as the 14th President of the U.S., defeating the Whig candidate, General Winfield Scott; William R. King (1786-1853) is elected as the 13th Vice President. The Whig party ceases to be a power.

Government

Napoleon III (1808-1873) becomes the Emperor of France.

Government

The South African Republic (Transvaal) is established.

Government

Stamps: The first pre-stamped envelopes are sold. Pre-stamped postcards (for a penny) appear 19 years later.

Science

Kerosene is discovered and named.

Medicine

A Dutch army surgeon creates the first cast for broken bones by injecting bandages with plaster.

Inventions

Elisha Gray (1835-1901) invents a safety device to prevent the fall of heavy machinery; his invention makes the development of the elevator possible.

Inventions

James Otis (died 1861) designs a passenger elevator.

Inventions

The non-rigid airship is invented by Henri Giffard.

Education

Education of Women: Elizabeth Blackwell (1821-1910) publishes "The Laws of Life, with Special Reference to the Physical Education of Girls."

Education

Women's Colleges: The National Women’s Education Association is founded by Catherine Beecher (1800-1878) to provide help for women’s colleges, and promote the idea of women as teachers.

Education

The first effective school attendance law is passed in Massachusetts; it requires at least 12 weeks attendance for all children between 8 and 14, six of which must be consecutive.

Education

Libraries: The Boston Public Library is founded.

Education

Women’s Colleges: Mills College is founded in California; it is the oldest women's college in the western part of the United States.

Grant, Julia

Ulysses Simpson "Buck" Grant Jr. (1852-1929), son of Ulysses and Julia Grant, is born July 22.

Adams, Louisa

Louisa Catherine Johnson Adams (1775-1852) dies in Washington on May 15 at the age of seventy-seven; the U.S. Congress adjourns to attend her funeral, the first time this honor is conferred upon a woman.

Taylor, Margaret

Margaret Mackall Smith Taylor (1788-1852) dies near Pascagoula, Mississippi on August 18 at the age of sixty-four.

Johnson, Eliza

Andrew Johnson Jr. (1852-1879), son of Andrew and Eliza Johnson, is born August 6.

Madison, Dolley

John Payne Todd (1792-1852), the biological son of Dolley Madison and the stepson of President James Madison, dies of typhoid fever. John''s life choices, made him a charlatan and constant disgrace to his parents.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy Webb (1831-1889) and Rutherford B. Hayes (1822-1881) are married on December 30 in Cincinnati.

Economics

The Wells Fargo Company is founded.

Discovery

Livingstone (1813-1873) begins explorations of the Zambezi River in South Africa.

Daily Life

The U.S. imports sparrows from Germany as a defense against caterpillars.

Sports

The first intercollegiate rowing race is held between Harvard and Yale.

Popular Culture

The character of “Uncle Sam” appears for the first time in the "New York Lantern Weekly."

Popular Culture

Stephen Foster (1826-1864) writes “My Old Kentucky Home.”

Religion

American Catholics hold their first Plenary Council in Baltimore.

Social Issues

Immigration: Chinese immigration is encouraged in California, particularly to provide labor for building railroads.

Reform

Labor Movement: Ohio becomes the first state to regulate working hours for women.

Reform

Temperance Movement: The Woman’s New York Temperance Society is formed by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony.

Government

The Washington Territory is formed from part of the Oregon Territory.

Government

With the Gadsden Treaty, the U.S. secures land from Mexico that completes its acquisition of land in the continental United States.

Government

Franklin Pierce (1804-1869) is inaugurated as the 14th President of the U.S., and William R. King (1786-1853) is inaugurated as the 13th Vice President. King dies soon after taking office, and is not replaced.

Medicine

Alexander Wood (1817-1884) uses hypodermic syringes for injections under the skin.

Medicine

Smallpox vaccinations are made compulsory in Britain.

Medicine

Chloroform is used by Queen Victoria (1819-1901) as an anesthetic in the birth of her 7th child; it becomes an accepted practice in England.

Medicine

Epidemics: More than 3,000 perish from yellow fever in New Orleans.

Inventions

African American inventors: George Crum invents the potato chip.

Technology

Airplanes: The first heavier-than-air flying machine, a glider, flies across a valley for 500 yards carrying its frightened creator, George Cayley (1773-1857).

Education

Higher Education: Antioch College in Ohio opens.

Education

Women's Colleges: American educator Mary Easton Sibley (1800-1878) founds the Lindenwood Female College in Missouri.

Education

Children’s Books: From his weekly magazine, "Household Words," Charles Dickens (1812-1870) waxes nostalgic for the educationally-incorrect fairy tales and nursery rhymes of his youth, such as Aladdin or Jack the Giant-Killer.

Arts and Letters

Painting: Rosa Bonheur’s (1822-1899) painting, "The Horse Fair," establishes her reputation as an artist.

Fillmore, Abigail

Abigail Powers Fillmore (1798-1853) dies of pneumonia at the Willard Hotel in Washington at the age of fifty-five.

Harrison, Caroline

Caroline Scott (1832-1892) graduates from the Oxford Female Academy. She begins teaching

Pierce, Jane

Benjamin Pierce (1841-1853), son of Franklin and Jane Pierce, dies tragically January 16 in a train accident before his parents' eyes.

Hayes, Lucy

Birchard Austin Hayes (1853-1926), son of Rutherford and Lucy Hayes, is born November 4 in Cincinnati, Ohio.

Lincoln, Mary

Mary Todd and Abraham Lincoln’s son Thomas "Tad" (1853-1871) is born on April 4 in Springfield.

Tyler, Julia

Lyon Gardiner Tyler (1853-1935), son of John Tyler and his second wife Julia, is born in August.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: The Baltimore and Ohio railroad is completed as far as the Ohio River.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: The New York Central railroad is formed, connecting New York City and Buffalo, NY.

Economics

The building of Steinway pianos is begun in New York City by Henry Steinway (1797-1871) and his three sons.

Economics

Tiffany and Company, jewelers, is established.

Economics

Condensed milk is introduced by Gail Borden (1801-1871).

Economics

American Money: Three-dollar gold pieces are authorized by Congress.

Discovery

Commander Matthew Perry (1794-1858) sails into Japan’s Edo Bay, hoping to open Japan to trade with the west.

Religion

Women's Firsts: Antoinette Brown Blackwell (1825-1921) becomes the first ordained minister of a recognized denomination, the Congregationalists.

Reform

Women's Suffrage Movement: Seventy-three women present a petition to the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention urging women’s suffrage.

Politics

Political Parties: The Republican Party is formed in Ripon, Wisconsin; opposition to slavery is their central principle.

Politics

Third Parties: The Know-Nothing Party is formed; native white Protestants opposed to immigration and Catholicism run Millard Fillmore (1800-1874) for President.

Government

Clara Barton (1821-1912) becomes perhaps the first regularly appointed woman civil servant in the U.S. with a clerkship in a Washington, DC patent office.

Government

The Gadsden Purchase Treaty is ratified.

Medicine

Florence Nightingale (1820-1910) introduces nurses and standards of cleanliness into military hospitals in the Crimea.

Inventions

The first form of the electric light bulb is invented by Heinrich Goebel (1818-1893) in Germany.

Inventions

The Smith and Wesson revolver is invented.

Technology

The use of the Bunsen burner is introduced.

Education

Special Education: The first state-supported school especially designed for the mentally retarded opens in Syracuse, NY.

Education

Education of Women: Emily Blackwell (1826-1910), Elizabeth Blackwell’s sister, earns a medical degree at Cleveland’s Western Reserve University.

Arts and Letters

Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862) writes "Walden," or "Life in the Woods."

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Alfred Lord Tennyson (1809-1892) writes "The Charge of the Light Brigade," a poem about a tragic battle in the Crimean War.

Fillmore, Abigail

Mary Abigail (Abby) Fillmore (1832-1854) dies of cholera on July 27 at the age of 22.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy (1831-1889) and Rutherford Hayes (1822-1893) and their family move into its own house in Cincinnati.

Harrison, Caroline

Caroline (1832-1892)and Benjamin Harrison (1831-1901) move to Indianapolis, Indiana.

Tyler, Letitia

Alice Tyler Denison (1847-1854), daughter of John and Letitia Tyler, dies June 8 of colic.

Harrison, Caroline

Caroline and Benjamin Harrison’s son, Russell Benjamin Harrison (1854-1936), is born on August 12.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: Immigration: 13,000 Chinese arrive, the beginning of large-scale Chinese immigration; they are employed largely in railroad building in the west.

Popular Culture

Stephen Foster (1826-1864) writes “Jeanne with the Light Brown Hair.”

Religion

Pope Pius IX (1792-1878) sets forth the dogma of the Immaculate Conception.

Social Issues

Slavery: During the Kansas-Nebraska Act, Congress sets aside the rulings from the Missouri Compromise of 1820 and allows these two new territories to choose whether or not to allow slavery. Violent clashes erupt.

Reform

Abolition Movement: Northern resistance to the expansion of slavery increases.

Reform

Temperance Movement: Black temperance advocate Frances Ellen Watkins Harper (1825-1911) lectures for antislavery societies.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: Susan B. Anthony collects 6,000 signatures on a petition for women’s rights.

Law

The first U.S. Court of Claims is established.

Government

Stamps: Prepayment of postage is required in United States

Inventions

The first patent for the production of rayon is obtained by George Audemars.

Inventions

Kerosene is patented by Abraham Gesner (1797-1864) .

Inventions

The printing telegraph is invented.

Education

The first German-language kindergarten in the United States is established by Margarethe Schurtz in Watertown, WI.

Education

A professorship of technology is created at Edinburgh University.

Education

Children’s Books: Charlotte Yonge (1823-1901) publishes the children's historical novel, "The Little Duke," and also "The History of Sir Thomas Thumb, a traditional folktale to which Yonge adds material from the Arthurian legends and from the German tales of the Brothers Grimm.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807-1882) writes "Hiawatha."

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Walt Whitman (1819-1892) writes "Leaves of Grass."

Arts and Letters

The Boston Philharmonic Orchestra is organized.

Lincoln, Mary

Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) runs unsuccessfully for the Senate.

Van Buren, Hannah

Martin Van Buren (1812-1855), son of Martin and Hannah Van Buren, dies in Paris on March 19.

Grant, Julia

Ellen Wrenshall "Nellie" Grant Sartoris Jones (1855-1922), daughter of Ulysses and Julia Grant, is born July 4.

Economics

Transportation: The first Cunard liner crosses the Atlantic in 9 ½ days.

Economics

The first oil refinery in the U.S. is built in Pittsburgh.

Discovery

Missionary David Livingstone (1813-1873) discovers falls on the Zambezi River which he names Victoria Falls.

Sports

Horseback riding by women becomes popular; many riding academies are set up to help women learn.

Social Issues

Slavery: Fugitive slave Ann Wood leads a wagon load of armed boys and girls in a shootout with slave catchers; two are killed and the rest escape to the North.

Politics

James Buchanan (1791-1868) , Democrat, is elected the 15th President of the U.S., and John C. Breckenridge (1821-1875) is elected as the nation's 14th Vice President.

Politics

Third Parties: Former President Millard Fillmore (1800-1874) is selected to be the presidential candidate of the Know-Nothing or American Party.

Government

Presidents: Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924) , 28th President of the United States, is born.

War

The Crimean War ends with the signing of the Treaty of Paris.

Science

A Neanderthal skull is found in a cave near Dusseldorf in Germany.

Inventions

Henry Bessemer (1813-1898) invents a process which makes it possible to mass-produce low-cost steel.

Inventions

A patent for a pencil with an attached eraser is granted to H.L. Lipman.

Inventions

Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) invents the process of pasteurisation.

Technology

Railroad History: The first railroad bridge across the Mississippi River is completed between Rock Island, Illinois and Davenport, Iowa.

Arts and Letters

American Theatre: The first American copyright law is established because of the efforts of Dion Boucicault (1820-1890). In its earliest form, it only protects the title of the play.

Tyler, Julia

Robert Fitzwalter Tyler (1856-1927), son of John Tyler and his second wife Julia, is born March 12.

Lane, Harriet

Harriet Lane (1830-1903) serves as James Buchanan's hostess because he never married.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy and Rutherford Hayes’s second son, James Webb Hayes (1856-1934), is born on March 20th in Cincinnati.

Hayes, Lucy

Fannie Hayes Platt, Rutherford’s sister and Lucy’s great friend, dies of complications of childbirth.

Economics

The first street trains, powered by steam, begin running between Boston and Cambridge, MA.

Economics

The Western Union Company is established.

Discovery

Borax is discovered in California.

Sports

Boxing: The longest bare-knuckle boxing match in history pits James Kelly vs. Jack Smith in Melbourne, Australia; the fight lasts 6 hours and 15 minutes.

Sports

Women in Sports: Catherine Beecher (1800-78) publishes Physiology and Calisthenics for Schools and Families, the first fitness manual for women.

Social Issues

Native Americans: The Pottawatomie Massacre takes place in Kansas.

Reform

Abolition Movement: An anti-slavery group led by John Brown (1800-1859) attacks a pro-slavery settlement in Franklin County, Kansas. Horace Greeley’s (1811-1872) "New York Tribune" calls the territory “Bleeding Kansas.”

Law

Slavery: In the Dred Scott decision, the Supreme Court rules that slaves are not free just because they live in a free state, that blacks do not have the right to sue in federal court, and that Congress does not have the right to try to exclude slavery from the territories.

Government

Presidents: William Howard Taft (1857-1930) , 27th President of the United States, is born.

Government

National Capital: The House of Representatives moves into its current home in the south wing of the Capitol.

Government

Stamps: Perforated U.S. stamps appear (Previously people had to cut apart sheets of stamps).

Government

James Buchanan (1791-1868) is inaugurated as the 15th President of the U.S., and John C. Breckenridge (1821-1875) is inaugurated as the nation's 14th Vice President.

Science

Yeast is discovered to be a living plant.

Science

Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) proves that fermentation is caused by living organisms.

Science

In a letter to Asa Gray (1810-1888) , Charles Darwin (1809-1882) first outlines his theories of evolution and natural selection.

Medicine

Elizabeth Blackwell (1821-1910) founds her own New York Infirmary for Women and Children.

Medicine

Epidemics: One of the worst epidemics of influenza begins this year and spreads around the world in the next two years.

Inventions

George Pullman (1831-1897) invents the Pullman Sleeping Car for train travel.

Technology

Airplanes: Jean-Marie Le Bris (1817-1872), a French sea caption, tests a glider modeled after an albatross. This "artificial bird" makes one short glide, but on the second glide it crashes and Le Bris breaks his leg.

Education

Children’s Books: Thomas Hughes (1822-1896), writes "Tom Brown's Schooldays," making Arnold's Rugby the model for what Victorian schoolboys expected their schools to be like.

Education

Libraries: The Watkinson Library is founded as a “a library of reference” for the community of Hartford, Connecticut.

Education

The National Education Association is founded in Philadelphia for the purpose of advancing the professionalism of teaching.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Gustave Flaubert (1821-1880) publishes "Madame Bovary."

Ideas

'The Atlantic Monthly' is founded.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy Hayes (1831-1889) takes great pleasure in her new sewing machine, a gift from her mother.

Lane, Harriet

Harriet Lane (1830-1903) is the first woman to have a federal steamship named after her.

Economics

E.G. Otis installs the first safety elevator.

Economics

The laying of the transatlantic cable begins.

Economics

A financial panic triggers a serious depression; thousands of businesses fail.

Daily Life

Central Park, in New York City, is designed.

Daily Life

The American Chess Association is formed.

Daily Life

Holidays: The first Mardi Gras pageant of decorated floats is held in New Orleans.

Sports

Baseball: Twenty-five teams form the first baseball association, the National Association of Baseball Players.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: The Married Women’s Property Bill passes in England.

Government

New State: Minnesota becomes the 32nd state in the U.S.

Government

Presidents: Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919) , 26th President of the United States, is born.

Government

Britain takes over the government of India from the East India Company.

Government

A treaty of peace, friendship, and commerce is signed between the U.S. and China.

Science

The cell is isolated by Berlin doctor Rudolf Virchow (1821-1902) , who calls it the basic unit of all life.

Inventions

Hamilton Smith (1862-1943) patents the rotary washing machine.

Inventions

Jean Lenoir (1822-1900) invents an internal combustion engine.

Education

Children’s Books: Rev. Frederic William Farrar (1831-1903), a schoolmaster, writes the moralistic tale "Eric," or "Little by Little," about a boy who goes bad.

Education

A chemistry department and research lab are established by Harvard University.

Arts and Letters

The first public concert is performed by the New York Symphony Orchestra.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: “The Courtship of Miles Standish” is published by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807-1882).

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy and Rutherford Hayes’s third son, Rutherford Platt Hayes (1858-1927), is born on June 24 in Cincinnati.

Hayes, Lucy

Rutherford Hayes (1822-1893) is appointed to an unexpired term as city solicitor of Cincinnati in December.

Hayes, Lucy

The Hayes family has its first Christmas tree, decorated as a surprise by their German servants.

Lincoln, Mary

Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) runs for the Senate from Illinois against incumbent Democrat Stephen Douglas (1813-1861); he loses, but the Lincoln-Douglas debates form a part of U.S. history.

Harrison, Caroline

Caroline and William Harrison’s first daughter, Mary Scott (1858-1930) is born on April 3.

Grant, Julia

Jesse Root Grant (1858-1934), son of Ulysses and Julia Grant, is born February 6.

Economics

The transatlantic cable is completed, allowing telegraphic communication between the U.S. and Britain; the service ends after a month because the signal is too weak.

Economics

Transportation: Stagecoach service and mail delivery begin between San Francisco and St. Louis.

Economics

Macy’s Department Store opens.

Discovery

Lake Tanganyika in East Africa is first discovered by Europeans.

Daily Life

Princess Victoria (1840-1901) of England (daughter of Queen Victoria) chooses Wagner’s “Bridal Chorus” and Mendelssohn’s “Wedding March” for her wedding, thus beginning a tradition.

Daily Life

Crime and Punishment: The first use of fingerprints as a means of identification occurs in India.

Sports

Baseball: The National Association of Baseball Players is organized.

Religion

Marie-Bernard Soubirous (1843-1879), later to become St. Bernadette of Lourdes, first sees a vision of the Virgin Mary at Lourdes in France.

Religion

The Ladies’ Christian Association, forerunner to the Young Women’s Christian Association (YWCA), is founded in New York City.

Religion

Another religious revival begins in New York and Pennsylvania and sweeps across the country; religious conversions are many.

Social Issues

Slavery: Slaves are sold at very high prices because of high demand for cotton, and southerners begin to talk about reopening the slave trade.

Law

The Supreme Court upholds the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850; Georgia prohibits the deathbed manumission of slaves and rules that free blacks can be sold back into slavery; tensions between North and South escalate.

Government

New State: Oregon becomes the 33rd state in the U.S.

Government

President James Buchanan (1791-1868) rules that the New Mexico territory should become a reservation for American Indians.

Government

National Capital: The Senate moves into the enlarged north wing of the Capitol, where it remains, today.

War

The first iron-clad armored warship, Britain’s HMS Warrior, is launched.

Science

Botanist Almira Hart Lincoln Phelps (1793-1884) is the second woman elected to the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Science

Charles Darwin’s (1809-1882) "Origin of the Species" is published.

Inventions

The first practical storage battery is invented.

Inventions

The steamroller is invented.

Education

The Cooper Union in New York City is established, primarily for adult education in the arts and sciences.

Arts and Letters

Opera: The opera "Faust" is performed.

Arts and Letters

Women's Firsts: Harriet E. Wilson (1827-1863), author of "Our Nig," becomes the first African-American novelist published in the U.S.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Charles Dickens (1812-1870) writes "A Tale of Two Cities."

Hayes, Lucy

Rutherford B. Hayes (1822-1893) is elected to his own two-year term as city solicitor in Cincinnati.

Hayes, Lucy

The Hayes home is enlarged, with quarters for servants and a brick kitchen with a new range.

Economics

Work is begun on the Suez Canal.

Economics

The first commercial oil well is brought in at Titusville, PA.

Discovery

The first large silver deposit found in the U.S., the Comstock Lode, is found in Nevada.

Daily Life

Big Ben, the clock tower of the Houses of Parliament in London is started.

Sports

Baseball: The first intercollegiate baseball game in the U.S. is played by students from Amherst and Williams Colleges in Massachusetts.

Sports

The first national billiards champion wins a $15,000 prize.

Popular Culture

Charles Blondin (1824-1897) walks across Niagara Falls on the tightrope; he is watched by 25,000 people.

Popular Culture

Wearing the body-hugging costume later named for him, Jules Leotard (1839-1870) performs the first flying trapeze act without a net at the Cirque Napoleon.

Popular Culture

Daniel Emmett (1815-1904) writes “Dixie” and "Turkey in the Straw."

Reform

Abolition Movement: John Brown (1800-1859) seizes the armory at Harper’s Ferry to provide for his militia; he is later captured and hanged.

Politics

South Carolina secedes from the Union followed within two months by Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas.

Politics

Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) of Illinois becomes the first Republican to win the United States Presidency; he becomes the 16th President and Hannibal Hamlin (1809-1891) of Maine is elected as the 15th Vice President.

Government

The U.S. Secret Service is established.

Government

Stamps: By 1860, almost all countries have postage stamps.

Science

The fact that the star Sirius is a double star is discovered.

Medicine

Florence Nightingale (1820-1910) opens the world’s first school of nursing.

Inventions

The first practical gasoline engine is built.

Education

The first English language kindergarten is established in Boston by Elizabeth Peabody (1804-1894).

Education

Olympia Brown (1835-1926) becomes the first woman to study theology with men—at St. Lawrence University.

Arts and Letters

Literature: George Eliot(1819-1880) (Mary Ann Evans) publishes "The Mill on the Floss."

Arts and Letters

American Theatre: Dion Boucicault (1820-1890) begins promotion of "combination companies". The company and players would travel with scenery for 1 play.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy Hayes’s (1831-1889) boys suffer from mumps, whooping cough, and measles.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy Hayes (1831-1889) and her husband take a long trip, by riverboat, to Canada, by rail and boat to Boston, to New England and home by way of New York City. Total cost: $310.77.

Harrison, Caroline

Caroline Harrison (1832-1892) begins 30 years of serving on the board of managers of the Indianapolis Orphans’ Asylum.

Wilson, Ellen

Ellen Louise Axson (1860-1914), future first wife of President Woodrow Wilson (1856–1924), is born in Savannah, Georgia on May 15.

Tyler, Julia

Pearl Tyler Ellis (1860-1947), daughter of John Tyler and his second wife Julia, is born June 20.

Arthur, Ellen

William Lewis Arthur (1860-1863), son of Chester Alan and Ellen Arthur, is born December 10.

Harding, Florence

Florence Kling DeWolfe (1860-1924), future wife of President Warren G. Harding (1865–1923), is born in Marion, Ohio on August 15.

Economics

Slavery: Cotton shipments are at an all-time high (2 billion pounds a year), which gives the South extra incentives to keep slavery.

Economics

The first Pony Express riders make it from Missouri to California in 10 days.

Economics

Population: The population of the United States (1860) is 32 million.

Daily Life

Fashion: Bustles begin to take the place of hoop skirts in American women’s fashion.

Daily Life

History of Toys: A chemistry set for children is offered for sale for $5.00.

Sports

Boxing: The longest prizefight in American history is held in Maine; it lasts for 4 hours and 20 minutes.

Sports

Croquet is introduced to the U.S. from England; it becomes very popular.

Sports

Golf: The first British Open Golf Championship is held.

Popular Culture

Stephen Foster (1826-1864) composes “Old Black Joe.”

Social Issues

Native Americans: The U.S. Army's Fort Definace in New Mexico is attacked by 1,000 Navaho Indians; the Indians lose.

Social Issues

Immigration: Poland’s religious and economic conditions prompt immigration of approximately two million Poles by 1914.

Reform

Women's Suffrage Movement: Elizabeth Cady Stanton speaks to a meeting of the New York State Legislature on behalf of women’s suffrage.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: Women are allowed to collect their own wages, to sue, and to inherit their husbands’ property in New York State; married women are allowed to be guardians of their children

Reform

Labor Movement: Six thousand shoemakers go on strike in Lynn, MA for higher wages; the companies grant higher wages but refuse to recognize the union.

Politics

Jefferson Davis (1808-1889) is elected President of the Confederate States of America.

Politics

Virginia secedes from the Union, followed within five weeks by Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina, thus forming an eleven state Confederacy with a population of 9 million.

Government

Congress passes the first income tax in the U.S. to support the war.

Government

New State: Kansas becomes the 34th state in the United States.

Government

The United States introduces the passport system.

Government

Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) is inaugurated as the 16th President and Hannibal Hamlin (1809-1891) is inaugurated as the 15th Vice President.

War

Civil War: The Union Army under Gen. Irvin McDowell (1818-1885) suffers a defeat at Bull Run 25 miles southwest of Washington.

War

Civil War: Pierre Beauregard (1813-1893) opens fire with 50 cannons upon Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina. The Civil War begins.

War

Confederates invade New Mexico from Texas.The Confederate Territory of Arizona is declared with the capital at La Mesilla.

War

Civil War; National Capital: The U.S. Capitol houses Union soldiers, providing medical attention and a place to sleep.

Inventions

Elisha Otis (1811-1861) patents elevator safety brakes, creating a safer elevator.

Inventions

Linus Yale (1821-1868) invents the Yale lock or cylinder lock.

Education

The first American doctor of philosophy degree is awarded by Yale University.

Education

Women's Colleges: Vassar College for women is founded in Poughkeepsie, NY.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: George Eliot (1819-1880) (Mary Ann Evans) writes "Silas Marner."

Arts and Letters

Literature: Charles Dickens (1812-1870) writes "Great Expectations."

Lincoln, Mary

The Lincolns (Abraham: 1809-1865 and Mary Todd: 1818-1882) move into the White House in March of 1861.

Hayes, Lucy

Rutherford B. Hayes (1822-1893) joins the 23rd Ohio Volunteer infantry as a Major.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy and Rutherford Hayes’s fourth son, Joseph Thompson (1861-1863), is born on December 21 in Cincinnati.

Harrison, Caroline

Caroline (1832-1892) and Benjamin (1831-1901) Harrison’s third child and second daughter dies at birth.

Roosevelt, Edith

Edith Kermit Carow (1861-1948), future wife of Theodore Roosevelt (1858–1919), is born in Norwich, Connecticut on August 6.

Taft, Helen

Helen Herron (1861-1943), future wife of President William Howard Taft [1909-1913] is born in Cincinnati, Ohio on June 2.

Economics

American Money: Gold payments are suspended; greenbacks become the national currency.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: Leland Stanford (1824-1893) hires Chinese laborers to help build the western part of the Central Pacific Railroad.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: There are 30,000 miles of railroad track in the U.S.

Economics

Telegraph wires are strung between San Francisco and New York.

Economics

Pencils are mass-produced in New York by Eberhard Faber.

Economics

American Money: Congress authorizes the United States Treasury to issue paper money for the first time in the form of non-interest bearing Treasury Notes called Demand Notes.

Daily Life

Daily weather forecasts are begun in Britain.

Popular Culture

Hot Air Balloons: A record balloon trip is made between Cincinnati, Ohio and the South Carolina coast is made in 9 hours.

Popular Culture

Wartime Music: “The Battle Hymn of the Republic” is written during the Civil War by Julia War Howe for the Union.

Popular Culture

Wartime Music: “Battle Cry of Freedom” is written during the Civil War by George F. Root for the Union.

Popular Culture

Wartime Music: “Dixie Land” is written during the Civil War by Daniel Emmett for the Confederate.

Government

Railroad History: President Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) signs the Pacific Railway Act, which authorizes the construction of the first transcontinental railroad.

Government

The Homestead Act is passed, decreeing that any American may have 160 acres of land in the west free, if he lives on it for five years.

Government

President Lincoln (1809-1865) issues the Emancipation Proclamation, declaring all slaves "henceforth and forever free."

Government

The U.S. Department of Agriculture is created by Congress.

Government

The Medal of Honor is authorized by Congress.

Government

American Money: The Secretary of the Treasury is empowered by Congress to have notes engraved and printed, which is done by private banknote companies.

War

Civil War: The bloodiest battle of the Civil War occurs at Antietam; over 23,000 are killed or wounded.

War

Civil War: The Confederate Ironclad 'Merrimac' sinks two wooden Union ships then battles the Union Ironclad 'Monitor' to a draw. Naval warfare is thus changed forever, making wooden ships obsolete.

War

Civil War: Confederate surprise attack on Gen. Ulysses S. Grant's (1822-1885) unprepared troops at Shiloh on the Tennessee River results in a bitter struggle with 13,000 Union killed and wounded and 10,000 Confederates.

War

Civil War: 75,000 Federals under Gen. John Pope (1874-1937) are defeated by 55,000 Confederates under Gen. Stonewall Jackson (1824-1863) and Gen. James Longstreet (1821-1904) at the second battle of Bull Run in northern Virginia.

Science

The speed of light is successfully measured.

Medicine

The first children’s clinic is opened in New York City.

Inventions

The Gatling (a 10 barrel, automatic firing) gun is invented by R.J. Gatling (1818-1903).

Inventions

A timepiece for split-second timing—the chronograph—is invented.

Inventions

Alexander Parkes (1813-1890) invents the first man-made plastic.

Inventions

Jean Lenoir (1822-1900) makes a gasoline engine automobile.

Education

Children’s Books: Christina Rossetti''s (1830-1894) long fantasy, "Goblin Market," about two sisters'' struggle to resist the tempting fruits of the goblin men, was long categorized as a children''s fairy tale, but is increasingly reread as a major poem of its period.

Education

African American Education: One of the earliest and longest-lived freedmen’s schools, the Penn School on St. Helena Island, NC, is founded by Laura Matilda Towne (1825-1901).

Education

Women's Firsts: Geologist Florence Bascom (1862-1945) becomes the first woman to receive a Ph.D. from Johns Hopkins University; she goes on to teach at Bryn Mawr.

Education

The Morrill Land-Grant Act endows colleges of agriculture and industry.

Education

Women's Firsts: In Ohio, Mary Jane Patterson receives a degree from Oberlin, becoming the first black woman to graduate from an American college.

Arts and Letters

Literature; Victor Hugo (1802-1885) writes "Les Misérables."

Lincoln, Mary

The Lincolns’ son William Wallace (1850-1862) dies of typhoid fever at age 11 on February 20.

Harrison, Caroline

Benjamin Harrison (1831-1901) raises a regiment for the Union in the Civil War (1,000 men from Indiana) known as the 70th Indiana Regiment.

Van Buren, Hannah

Martin Van Buren (1782-1862), 8th President of the U.S., dies in Kinderhook, New York.

Tyler, Julia

John Tyler (1790-1862), 10th President of the U.S., dies in Richmond, Virginia.

Economics

1,000 guns a day are being produced by the Colt factory.

Economics

The first automobile with an internal combustion engine is constructed.

Economics

A process for concentrating fruit juice is patented.

Economics

American Money: Demand Notes are replaced by United States Notes.

Popular Culture

Julia Ward Howe's (1819-1910) poem, "The Battle Hymn of the Republic" is published and later set to music. The music for "Taps" is also composed.

Government

President Lincoln (1809-1865) issues the final Emancipation Proclamation freeing all slaves in territories held by Confederates and emphasizes the enlisting of black soldiers in the Union Army.

Government

New Mexico is divided in half, creating the Territory of Arizona.

Government

National Capital: The "Statue of Freedom" is place on top of the Capitol building and becomes the crowning feature of the dome.

Government

Congress establishes free mail delivery in cities.

Government

New State: West Virginia becomes the 35th state in the United States.

Government

President Lincoln (1809-1865) delivers the Gettysburg Address.

War

Civil War: The Union institutes a draft to recruit soldiers for the Civil War.

War

Civil War: The tide of war turns against the South as the Confederates are defeated at the Battle of Gettysburg in Pennsylvania.

War

Civil War: The Battle of Gettysburg takes place.

Science

The National Academy of Sciences is founded in Washington, DC.

Education

Children’s Books: The Rev. Charles Kingsley’s (1819-1875) fairy tale "The Water-Babies" combines many of these enthusiasms in a tale of how a little chimney-sweep goes backward in evolution when he is wicked, and forwards when he does as he would be done by.

Arts and Letters

Samuel Langhorne Clemens (1835-1910) adopts the pen-name, Mark Twain.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Henry Wordsworth Longfellow (1807-1882) publishes the poem, “Paul Revere’s Ride.”

Pierce, Jane

Jane Means Appleton Pierce (1806-1863), wife of Franklin Pierce (1804-1869), dies of tuberculosis in Andover, Massachusetts on December 2 at the age of 57.

Arthur, Ellen

William Lewis Arthur (1860-1863), son of Chester Alan and Ellen Arthur, dies July 7.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy and Rutherford Hayes’s fourth son, Joseph (1861-1863), dies of dysentery at the age of two on June 24.

Johnson, Eliza

Charles Johnson (1830-1863), son of Andrew and Eliza Johnson, dies April 4 in a horse accident.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy Hayes (1831-1889), her four sons, and her mother go to West Virginia to be with Rutherford (1822-1893) and his regiment.

Economics

Transportation: The world''''s first underground railway service, London''''s Metropolitan line between Paddington and Farringdon, is opened.

Economics

Traveler’s Insurance Company is founded in Hartford, CT.

Economics

American Money: The design of U.S. currency incorporates a Treasury seal, the fine line engraving necessary for the difficult-to-counterfeit itaglio printing, intricate geometric lathe work patterns, and distinctive linen paper with embedded red and blue fibers.

Daily Life

Holidays: The first national Thanksgiving Day is proclaimed by President Lincoln (1809-1865) to be the fourth Thursday of November.

Daily Life

The first paper dress patterns are developed by Ebenezer Butterick (1826-1903).

Sports

The four-wheeled roller skate is patented by James Plimpton of New York.

Sports

Horse Racing: The Grand Prix horse race is first held in Paris.

Popular Culture

Stephen Foster (1826-1864) composes “Beautiful Dreamer.”

Religion

Olympia Brown (1835-1926) is ordained a minister by the Northern Universalists in Weymouth, MA.

Religion

The Seventh Day Adventist church was officially founded by Ellen G White, James White and Joseph Bates.

Social Issues

Native Americans: Kit Carson (1809-1868) begins resettling Navajo and Apache Indians on reservations by force.

Social Issues

Slavery: The Emancipation Proclamation delivered by President Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) decrees that all slaves in Rebel territory are free on January 1, 1863.

Law

Chief Justices: President Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) nominates Salmon Portland Chase (1808-1873) Chief Justice of the Supreme Court; he is confirmed by the Senate on the same day, and holds the position for eight years, until his death in 1873.

Politics

Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) is reelected for a second term as President of the United States, and Andrew Johnson (1808-1875) is elected as the nation's 16th Vice President.

Government

New State: Nevada becomes the 36th state in the United States.

Government

The territory of Montana is organized.

Government

Twenty-six nations sign the Geneva Conventions, an agreement to respect humanitarian rules of war with respect to prisoners, sick soldiers, Red Cross neutrality, and civilians in war zones.

Government

American Money: Congress authorizes the inscription, "In God We Trust" on U.S. coins.

War

Civil War: General William Tecumseh Sherman (1820-1891) marches his Union army through Georgia, captures Atlanta and Savannah, and leaves a 300 mile path of destruction, 60 miles wide, all the way to the sea.

Medicine

Women's Firsts: Dr. Mary Edwards Walker (1832-1919) is appointed assistant surgeon in the Union Army.

Inventions

African American Inventors: Inventor Norbert Rillieux (1806-1894) patents a process for refining sugar that is used by sugar processing plants all over the world.

Technology

Airplanes: Count Ferdinand d’Esterno, France, publishes the first scientific observations of the effects of the wind on a wing in his pamphlet, "Du Vol des Oiseaux."

Education

Women’s Firsts: Rebecca Lee Crumpler (1846-1922) becomes the first black woman to receive an M.D. degree. She graduated from the New England Female Medical College.

Education

Public Education: Native Americans: Indian Education: Congress makes it illegal for Native Americans to be taught in their native languages. Native children as young as four years old are taken from their parents and sent to Bureau of Indian Affairs off-reservation boarding schools, whose goal, as one BIA official put it, is to "kill the Indian to save the man."

Arts and Letters

Literature: Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910) begins writing his epic, "War and Peace."

Arts and Letters

Literature: Jules Verne (1828-1905) publishes "A Journey to the Center of the Earth."

Harrison, Anna

Anna Tuthill Symmes (1775-1864) Harrison dies on February 25 in North Bend, Ohio, at the age of eighty-eight.

Hayes, Lucy

Rutherford B. Hayes (1822-1893) runs for Congress from Ohio and wins without ever leaving his troops.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy and Rutherford Hayes’s fifth son, George Crook (1864-1866) is born on September 29 in Chillicothe, Ohio.

Cleveland, Frances

Frances Folsom (1864-1947), future wife of President Grover Cleveland (1837–1908), is born in Buffalo, New York, on July 21. She is the sixth of ten First Ladies born in New York, the "mother state" of presidential wives. (Rose Elizabeth Cleveland, sister of Grover Cleveland, served as his First Lady during the first two years of his presidency, and is the fifth First Lady born in New York State).

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: The Pennsylvania Railroad begins using steel for its rails.

Daily Life

Taking pictures that will be become famous as a record of the Civil War, New York photographer Matthew Brady (1822-1896) travels through the nation's battlefields.

Daily Life

Newspapers: In Louisiana, the New Orleans Tribune begins publication. It is one of the first African-American-run daily newspapers.

Social Issues

Immigration: European immigration to the U.S. increases, due in large part to the Homestead Act and also because immigrants are excluded from the draft.

Social Issues

Native Americans: Many Navahos die as they make the "Long March" through New Mexico to their grim reservation at Bosque Redondo.

Social Issues

Native Americans: The massacre of Cheyenne and Arapahoe Indians at Sand Creek, CO occurs.

Reform

Labor Movement: The first International Workingmen's Association is founded by Karl Marx (1818-1883) in London and New York.

Law

Civil Rights Movement: The Thirteenth Amendment, forbidding slavery, is passed by the Congress, ratified by two-thirds of the states and added to the Constitution.

Government

Warren G. Harding (1865-1923), 29th President of the United States, is born near Marion, Ohio.

Government

American Money: Gold Certificates are issued by the Department of the Treasury against gold coin and buillion deposits and are circulated until 1933.

Government

American Money: The Department of the Treasury establishes the United States Secret Service to control counterfeit money.

Government

Following the assassination of President Lincoln, his Vice-President, Andrew Johnson (1808-1875), becomes the 17th President of the United States. No new Vice President is selected.

War

Indian Wars: Escalation of the Plains War between the U.S. military and the Sioux and Cheyenne.

War

Civil War: Gen. Robert E. Lee (1807-1870) surrenders his Confederate Army to Gen. Ulysses S. Grant (1822-1885) at the village of Appomattox Court House in Virginia; the Civil War ends.

Science

Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) proposes the laws of heredity.

Medicine

Antiseptic surgery is initiated by Joseph Lister (1827-1912) using carbolic acid.

Medicine

The Chicago Hospital for Women and Children is established, in part, by Dr. Mary Harris Thompson, one of the best-known surgeons of her era.

Medicine

Women's Firsts: Dr. Mary Walker (1832-1919) becomes the first woman to receive the Medal of Honor, for her service during the Civil War.

Inventions

The coffee percolator is invented.

Education

Higher Education: The Universities of Maine and Kentucky, Purdue University and Cornell University are all founded.

Education

Higher Education: Yale University opens the first Department of Fine Arts in the U.S.

Education

Higher Education: The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is founded.

Education

Women's Colleges: Maria Mitchell (1818-1889) is the first woman appointed as a professor of astronomy, at Vassar College.

Education

Children''s Books: Lewis Carroll''s (1832-1898) "Alice in Wonderland" is published.

Education

Children''s Books: "Hans Brinker," or "The Silver Skates" is written by Mary Mapes Dodge (1831-1905).

Education

Public Education (1865-1877): African Americans mobilize to bring public education to the South for the first time. After the Civil War, and with the legal end of slavery, African Americans in the South make alliances with white Republicans to push for many political changes, including for the first time rewriting state constitutions to guarantee free public education. In practice, white children benefit more than Black children.

Arts and Letters

Opera: Wagner’s (1813-1883) opera "Tristan and Isolde," premiers in Munich.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Jules Verne (1828-1905) writes "From the Earth to the Moon."

Jackson, Rachel

Andrew Jackson Jr. (1808-1865), Andrew and Rachel Jackson's adopted son (he was one of the pair of twins born to a sibling of Rachel Jackson), dies.

Lincoln, Mary

Assassination: President Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) is assassinated at Ford's Theatre in Washington, DC.

Johnson, Eliza

Eliza McCardle Johnson (1810-1876) is the first First Lady to teach her husband, Andrew Johnson, to read and write.

Lincoln, Mary

Mary Todd Lincoln (1818-1882) and her family move to Chicago.

Hayes, Lucy

Rutherford (1822-1893) and Lucy (1831-1889) Hayes go to Washington for his first term in Congress. The children stay in Chillicothe with their grandmother.

Harrison, Caroline

General Benjamin Harrison (1831-1901) and the 70th Indiana are mustered out of Federal service on June 8, 1865.

Economics

The Atlantic cable is completed.

Economics

The first oil pipeline is laid in Pennsylvania (6 miles).

Economics

The Union Stockyards open in Chicago.

Daily Life

The first carpet sweeper comes into popular use.

Daily Life

Transportation: George Pullman''s (1831-1897) railroad sleeping cars appear in the U.S.

Daily Life

The first fire department with paid firefighters is founded in New York City.

Sports

Billiard balls made out of a composition material replace balls made of ivory.

Sports

Boxing: Boxing's Queensbury Rules are laid out.

Sports

Women in Sports: Matthew Vassar opens Vassar College with a special School of Physical Training with classes in riding, gardening, swimming, boating, skating and "other physical accomplishments suitable for ladies to acquire ... bodily strength and grace."

Popular Culture

Another popular favorite published this year is Mark Twain's (1835-1910) short story, "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County."

Social Issues

Hate Groups: The Ku Klux Kan is founded in Tennessee.

Social Issues

Poverty: The Salvation Army is founded in England by William Booth (1829-1912).

Law

Civil Rights Movement: The Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution, prohibiting voter discrimination, is passed by the Congress.

Government

Civil Rights Movement: The Freedman’s Bureau Bill is established to provide assistance to freed slaves.

Government

American Money: Congress authorizes the issuance of the 5-cent piece, the “nickel.”

Government

Tennessee becomes the first state readmitted to the Union.

Government

Civil Rights Movement: Despite the veto of President Andrew Johnson (1808-1875), the U.S. passes a Civil Rights Law, protecting the rights of citizenship for former slaves freed by the Thirteenth Amendment.

Inventions

Dynamite is developed by Swedish engineer Alfred Nobel (1801-1872).

Inventions

Englishmen Robert Whitehead (1861-1947) invents a torpedo.

Inventions

A 12-horsepower steam automobile is developed in Connecticut.

Technology

Battery Technology: Georges Leclanche (1839-1882), a French engineer, patents a new system, which is immediately successful. In the space of two years, twenty thousand of his cells are being used in the telegraph system.

Technology

Airplanes: The Aeronautical Society is founded in England.

Education

Women’s Firsts: Lucy Hobbs (1833-1910) becomes the first woman to graduate from dental school, the Ohio College of Dental Surgery.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910) writes "War and Peace."

Arts and Letters

Literature: Feodor Dostoevsky (1821-1881) writes "Crime and Punishment."

Van Buren, Hannah

John Van Buren (1810-1866), son of Martin and Hannah Van Buren dies October 13 of kidney failure while at sea.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy Hayes (1831-1889) returns to Chillicothe in March; the older boys study German.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy and Rutherford Hayes’s fifth son, George Crook (1864-1866), dies of scarlet fever on May 24 at the age of 20 months.

Economics

The first refrigerated railroad car is built in Detroit.

Economics

Laying of the second Atlantic cable is completed.

Economics

American Money: National Bank Notes, backed by U.S. government securities, becomes predominant.

Daily Life

The first Young Women’s Christian Association (YWCA) opens in Boston.

Sports

Women in Sports: Baseball: Vassar College fields the first two women''s amateur baseball teams.

Religion

An early congregation of Reform Jews builds the Plum Street Temple in Cincinnati, Ohio.

Social Issues

Jim Crow Laws: The former Confederate States enact "Black code" (later known as Jim Crow) laws to counteract the thirteenth amendment.

Reform

Labor Movement: The National Labor Union is founded in Baltimore, the first such industrial trade-union confederation and a landmark in the U.S. labor movement.

Reform

Animal Rights Movement: The American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals is founded in New York City.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, Martha Coffin Pelham Wright, Lucretia Mott, and Ernestine Rose found the American Equal Rights Association, seeking both black and women’s suffrage.

Government

The Dominion of Canada is established by The British North America Act.

Government

Education: The federal Office of Education is established to provide information on the condition of education in the United States.

Government

New State: Nebraska becomes the 37th state of the Union.

Government

Alaska is purchased from Russia for the sum of $7.2 million, approximately two cents an acre.

Medicine

Lister (1827-1912) publishes "Antiseptic Principle of the Practice of Surgery," based partly on Pasteur's work.

Inventions

Elizabeth Hawks receives a patent for a stove with a separate “air chamber” for baking.

Inventions

Barbed wire is first patented by Lucien B. Smith of Ohio.

Inventions

Joseph Monier (1823-1906) of Paris first patents reinforced concrete.

Inventions

The first motorcycle is invented.

Inventions

Christopher Sholes (1819-1890) invents the first practical and modern typewriter.

Education

Higher Education: The first U.S. dental school is established at Harvard.

Education

Higher Education: Howard University, the first predominantly Negro college to offer comprehensive university facilities, is chartered.

Education

Special Education: The Clark Institute for Deaf Mutes is chartered; it is the first U.S. school to teach the deaf using German principles of articulation and lip-reading.

Arts and Letters

Drama: Henrik Ibsen (1828-1906) writes "Peer Gynt."

Arts and Letters

Opera: Charles Gounod’s (1818-1893) opera, "Romeo et Juliette," is performed in Paris.

Arts and Letters

Walt Whitman (1819-1992) circulates this fourth edition as four separately paginated books stitched together between two covers: a vastly re-edited version of the 1860 "Leaves of Grass," a reissue of "Drum-Taps," a reissue of the "Sequel to Drum-Taps," and a striking coda called "Songs Before Parting."

Ideas

"Das Kapital" is published by Karl Marx (1818-1883).

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy and Rutherford Hayes’s first and only daughter, Fannie (1867-1950), is born in Cincinnati on September 2.

Hayes, Lucy

Rutherford B. Hayes (1822-1893) resigns his seat in Congress, runs for Governor of Ohio, and wins by less than 3,000 votes.

Harrison, Caroline

Benjamin Harrison (1831-1901) runs for Governor of Indiana; is defeated by the Democrats.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: The first elevated railroad is built in New York City.

Economics

The first paperback books are published in Leipzig, Germany.

Discovery

Diamond fields are discovered in South Africa.

Discovery

Gold is discovered in Wyoming.

Daily Life

Magazines: Mary Louise Booth (1831-1889) becomes editor of the new "Harper’s Bazaar" magazine.

Sports

Horse Racing: The Belmont Stakes horserace is run for the first time in New York.

Sports

Women in Sports: Golf: St. Andrew''s in Scotland is the first ladies golf club.

Popular Culture

“The Blue Danube Waltz” is written by Johann Strauss II (1825-1899).

Popular Culture

The first of the popular “rags to riches” stories, "Ragged Dick," or "Street Life in New York" is published by Horatio Alger.

Religion

Children’s Books: Religious books for children are often more attractively produced, and also much gentler, even sentimental, in religious messages like "The Pretty Village."

Social Issues

Native Americans: Reservations in Indian Territory (now Oklahoma) are set up by Congress for the Five Civilized Tribes (Cherokees, Chickasaws, Choctaws, Creeks, and Seminoles).

Social Issues

Native Americans: The Treaty of Medicine Lodge between the U.S. and the Cheyenne and Arapaho forces the two tribes to move to a reservation in Indian Territory, on land that was ceded by Indian tribes to the U.S. after the end of the Civil War.

Reform

Civil Rights Movement: Congress gives blacks the right to vote in Washington, D.C.

Law

Civil Rights Movement: The Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution, prohibiting states from infringing on the rights of American citizens is ratified by two-thirds of the states and added to the Constitution.

Law

Native Americans: A clause in the 14th Amendment “excluding Indians not taxed” prevents Native-American men from receiving the right to vote.

Politics

Impeachment: Current President Andrew Johnson (1808-1875) is impeached by the House of Representatives, but escapes conviction by one vote.

Politics

Ulysses S. Grant (1822-1885) is elected as the 18th President of the United States, and the first from Ohio; Schuyler Colfax (1823-1885) is elected as the nation's 17th Vice President.

Government

Civil Rights Movement: Congress makes black suffrage mandatory for a Confederate state to be readmitted to the Union.

Science

A Cro-Magnon skeleton (the first homo sapiens) is found in France.

Inventions

The air brake is invented by George Westinghouse (1846-1914).

Inventions

An electric voting machine is patented by Thomas Edison (1847-1931).

Inventions

Railroad History: Major Eli Janney (1831 – 1912), a confederate veteran of the civil war, invents the knuckle coupler. This semi-automatic device locks upon the cars closing together without the rail worker getting between the cars.

Inventions

George Westinghouse (1846-1914) invents the compressed air locomotive brake, which enables trains to be stopped with fail-safe accuracy.

Technology

Airplanes: Jean-Marie Le Bris (1817-1872) tests an improved version of his glider, making several unmanned glides before it crashes.

Technology

Airplanes: John Stringfellow, England, proposes a man-carrying triplane, similar to Henson’s aerial steam carriage. It captures the public’s imagination, although the model does not perform well when tested.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Louisa May Alcott (1832-1888) writes "Little Women."

Arts and Letters

Brahams’ (1833-1897) “Lullaby” is published.

Lane, Harriet

James Buchanan (1791-1868), 15th President of the U.S. and the only bachelor to be elected President, dies June 1 at Wheatland (near Lancaster, Pennsylvania).

Lincoln, Mary

Mary Todd Lincoln (1818-1882) travels to Europe with her son, Tad.

Hayes, Lucy

Rutherford B. Hayes (1822-1893) is inaugurated as Governor of Ohio in January. His salary is $4,000.

Economics

The Armour meat-packing factory is opened in Chicago.

Daily Life

The world's first traffic lights, built near London's Parliament Square, begin operation.

Sports

The first recorded bicycle race is held in Paris.

Sports

Golf: Golf''s first recorded hole-in-one is scored in Scotland.

Sports

The game of badminton is invented in England.

Sports

The sport of skating is regulated at a meeting of an American skating congress in Pittsburgh.

Sports

The first indoor track and field meet is held in New York City.

Religion

Brigham Young (1801-1877) marries his 27th and final wife.

Religion

“O Little Town of Bethlehem” is written by Episcopal clergyman Phillips Brooks (1835-1893).

Social Issues

Immigration: Japanese laborers arrive in Hawaii to work in sugar cane fields.

Reform

Labor Movement: The first 8-hour day begins for government workers. Others continue to work long hours.

Law

Women’s Firsts: Arabella Mansfield (1846-1911) is granted admission to practice law in Iowa, making her the first woman lawyer.

Law

In "Texas v. White," the U.S. Supreme Court rules that secession is illegal. Following this decision, Congress restores a republican government in Texas.

Law

The Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution, affirming the right to vote and forbidding states to deny that right based on race, color, or "previous condition of servitude," is passed by Congress.

Politics

Third Parties: The National Prohibition Party is formed in Chicago.

Government

The first Black U.S. diplomat, Ebenezer D. Bassett (1833-1908), becomes minister-resident to Haiti.

Government

Ulysses S. Grant (1822-1885) is inaugurated as the 18th President of the United States, and Schuyler Colfax (1823-1885) is inaugurated as the nation's 17th Vice President.

Government

Stamps: First U.S. pictorial stamps appear; this is the first time that U.S. stamps show something other than a dead person.

Inventions

Ives W. McGaffey of Chicago patents an early suction type vacuum cleaner.

Inventions

Celluloid is invented by J.W. Hyatt.

Inventions

Railroad History: George Westinghouse (1846-1914), an inventive Civil War veteran, develops the straight air brake.

Inventions

Chewing gum is patented by William F. Semple.

Inventions

Margarine is patented in France.

Education

Education of Women: Three women are admitted to the Chicago Medical College.

Education

Children’s Books: A beautiful Victorian illustrated "Cinderella" is published, along with a new versification of the story by Robert Willis, as "The Children''s Christmas Annual for 1869."

Arts and Letters

American Theatre: There are 21 theatres in New York and 6 in Boston.

Ideas

John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) writes "On the Subjugation of Women."

Pierce, Jane

Franklin Pierce (1804-1869), the 14th president of the United States, dies October 8 in Concord, New Hampshire.

Hayes, Lucy

Rutherford B. Hayes (1822-1893) runs for a second term as Governor of Ohio and is once again elected. Lucy Hayes (1831-1889) continues her role as First Lady of Ohio.

Grant, Julia

Julia Dent Grant (1826-1902) is the first President's wife to have the Inaugural Ball in the Treasury. She also had the first closets built in the White House, and was the first First Lady to close the White House grounds to the public.

Johnson, Eliza

Robert Johnson (1834-1869), son of Andrew and Eliza Johnson, dies April 22 by taking his own life.

Economics

Transportation: Railroad History: The first trans-continental railroad is finished when the Central Pacific and Union Pacific railroads are joined on May 10.

Economics

The Suez Canal is opened, after more than 10 years of construction.

Economics

Gypsy moths are brought to Massachusetts to start a silk industry. They escape, however, and cause all kinds of problems around the country.

Economics

Transportation: The clipper ship, "Cutty Sark," is launched.

Sports

Soccer: Intercollegiate football (soccer) is begun by Rutgers and Princeton.

Sports

The first professional baseball team, the Cincinnati Red Stockings, is founded.

Sports

Women in Sports: Frenchwomen enter cycling races at Bordeaux, France.

Popular Culture

Mark Twain (1835-1910) publishes his book "Innocents Abroad."

Religion

The first Vatican Council meets in Rome.

Social Issues

Native Americans: The Transcontinental Railroad cuts across Native American lands.

Reform

Temperance Movement: The National Temperance Convention meets in Chicago to form the Prohibition Party.

Reform

Women's Suffrage Movement: Susan B. Anthony founds the American Women’s Suffrage Association. The newspaper she founds has the slogan “Men, their rights and nothing more; women, their rights and nothing less.”

Reform

Women's Suffrage Movement: The Wyoming Territory becomes the first state to grant women suffrage.

Reform

Women’s Firsts: Arabella Mansfield (1846-1911) is granted admission to practice law in Iowa, making her the first woman lawyer.

Law

Civil Rights Movement: The Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution affirming the right to vote and forbidding states to deny that right based on race, color, or "previous condition of servitude," is ratifiedby two-thirds of the states and added to the Constitution.

Politics

Hiram Revels (1827-1901) (Mississippi) becomes the first Black elected to U.S. Senate.

Politics

Jefferson Long (1836-1901) (Georgia) becomes the first Black elected to U.S. House of Representatives.

Government

Congress authorizes the registration of trademarks.

Government

The U.S. Congress readmits Texas to the Union.

Government

The U.S. Justice Department is created.

Medicine

Louis Pasteur (1822- 1895) and Robert Koch (1843-1910) establish the germ theory of disease.

Inventions

Thomas Edison (1847-1931) invents the stock ticker.

Inventions

Mary Carpenter patents a sewing machine with a self-threading, self-setting needle.

Technology

Construction of the Brooklyn Bridge begins.

Technology

Airplanes: Alphonse Penaud (1850-1880), France, uses twisted rubber bands to power a miniature helicopter. It’s copied by dozens of toymakers in Europe in America.

Education

Education of Women: The first sorority: Kappa Alpha Theta, is established at De Pauw University.

Education

Education of Women: Ada H. Kepley (1847-1925) becomes the first woman to graduate from law school (at Union College of Law, Chicago).

Arts and Letters

Museums: The Metropolitan Museum of Art is founded in New York City.

Lincoln, Mary

Congress appropriates a pension for Mary Todd (1818-1882) Lincoln of $3,000, later raised to $5,000.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy Hayes (1831-1889) and Rutherford (1822-1893) successfully campaign for official Ohio state support for the establishment of a home for children orphaned by the Civil War.

Economics

Standard Oil Co. of Ohio is incorporated, with John D. Rockefeller (1839-1937) as president and majority stockholder.

Economics

Census: The U.S. population is 39.8 million, including, for the first time, African Americans listed by name.

Economics

The Great Atlantic and Pacific Tea Co. (the A&P) is founded.

Discovery

Heinrich Schliemann (1822-1890) begins excavations on the site of Homer's Troy.

Daily Life

A donkey first appears in a cartoon to symbolize the U.S. Democratic Party.

Daily Life

The Marcel wave becomes a popular women’s hairstyle.

Popular Culture

Jules Verne (1828-1905) writes "Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea."

Religion

The first Vatican Council declares the dogma of papal infallibility.

Reform

Abolition Movement: The American Anti-Slavery Society is dissolved.

Reform

Black Suffrage Movement: The 15th Amendment of the Constitution provides African-American males with the right to vote.

Government

The first Civil Service Commission is appointed by President Grant.

Science

Charles Darwin (1809-1882) writes "The Descent of Man," in which he asserts that all mammals descend from a single ancestor.

Medicine

The bacillus that causes leprosy is discovered.

Inventions

The first cable car is invented.

Technology

Airplanes: Alphonse Penaud (1850-1880) builds a planophore, a 20-inch long monoplane with a pusher propeller powered by a rubber band. It flies 131 feet in 11 seconds — the first flight of an inherently stable aircraft.

Technology

Airplanes: Francis Herbert Wenham and John Browning, England, invent the wind tunnel. They use it to prove that cambered wings produce more lift than other shapes.

Education

Children’s Books: Mother Goose is reprinted, with verses set to music.

Education

Parochial Education: The Archdiocese of New York receives $700,000 in public funds for schooling.

Education

Public Education: Michigan, New Hampshire, and Washington enact compulsory school attendance laws.

Arts and Letters

Opera: "Aida," by Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901), is performed in Cairo, where the opera is set; it is written in honor of the opening of the Suez Canal.

Arts and Letters

Literature: George Eliot (1819-1880) writes "Middlemarch."

Arts and Letters

Literature: Henry James’ (1843-1916) first novel, "Watch And Ward", is written as he travela through Venice and Paris.

Ideas

Marx’s (1818-1883) "Communist Manifesto" appears for the first time in English.

Lincoln, Mary

Mary Todd Lincoln (1818-1882) returns to the United States. Her son Thomas (1853-1871) dies of tuberculosis at age 18.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy Hayes’s sixth son, Scott Russell (1871-1923), is born in Columbus, Ohio on February 8. His sister Fanny calls him “little boy sister.”

Mckinley, Ida

Katherine "Katie" McKinley (1871-1875), the first child of William and Ida McKinley, is born December 25.

Arthur, Ellen

Ellen Herndon "Nell" Arthur (Pinkerton) (1871-1915), daughter of Chester Alan and Ellen Arthur, is born November 21.

Tyler, Julia

Julia Tyler Spencer (1849-1871), daughter of John Tyler and his second wife Julia, dies May 8 from childbirth complications.

Economics

The S.S. Oceanic, the first of the White Star Line luxury liners, is launched.

Daily Life

Disasters: The Chicago Fire burns down about three and one half miles of the city.

Sports

The National Rifle Association is founded by Union Army officers

Sports

Women in Sports: Miss Carrie A. Moore demonstrates a variety of roller skating movements at the Occidental Rink in San Francisco. Later in the same day, she exhibits her skill on a velocipede.

Popular Culture

“The Greatest Show on Earth”—P.T. Barnum’s (1810-1891) circus—opens in Brooklyn, NY.

Popular Culture

Lewis Carroll (1832-1898) writes "Through the Looking Glass."

Popular Culture

The poem, “The Owl and the Pussycat” is written by Edward Lear (1812-1888).

Religion

The hymn “Onward Christian Soldiers” is composed.

Social Issues

Native Americans: The Indian Appropriation Act is passed by Congress, making Native Americans wards of the federal government.

Reform

Labor Movement: Labor unions are legalized in Britain.

Politics

President Ulysses S. Grant (1822-1885) is elected for a second term, and Henry Wilson (1812-1875) is elected as the nation's 18th Vice President.

Politics

Third Parties; Women's Firsts: The Equal Rights Party nominates Victoria Woodhull (1838-1927) as the first woman candidate for President and African American leader Frederick Douglass (1817-1895) as her running mate.

Government

Presidents: Calvin Coolidge (1872-1933), 30th President of the United States, is born in Plymouth, Vermont.

Government

Congress abolishes the income tax it had imposed during the Civil War.

Science

Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) shows that fermentation is caused by microorganisms.

Science

Bacteriology is established as a science.

Science

"Popular Science Monthly" begins to be published.

Inventions

The doughnut cutter is patented by John F. Blondel of Maine.

Inventions

A crude forerunner of the movie projector—the “zoopraxiscope”—is invented.

Inventions

African American Inventors: Elijah McCoy (1843-1929) invents an oiling devise that allows machines to be oiled while in motion.

Education

Public Education: Connecticut enacts compulsory school attendance laws.

Education

Parochial Education: About 30,000 children attend Lutheran parochial schools.

Education

Public Education: The Tileston Normal School is opened in Wilmington, NC as one of the first free schools in the area open to poor students.

Education

Children’s Books: Christina Rossetti (1830-1894) writes a books of shorter verses for young children entitled "Sing-Song."

Arts and Letters

Painting: James Whistler (1834-1903) paints a portrait of his mother.

Ideas

The Granger Movement is formed, a forerunner of the populist movement of the 1890s.

Wilson, Edith

Edith Bolling Galt (1872-1961), future second wife of President Woodrow Wilson (1856–1924), is born in Wytheville, Virginia on October 15.

Economics

Montgomery Ward opens in Chicago.

Economics

Railroad History: George Westinghouse (1846-1914) patents the first automatic air brake. This is basically the same system as is used by today's railroads.

Daily Life

Yellowstone, the world's first National Park, is opened.

Daily Life

Disasters: The American ship "Mary Celeste" is found abandoned in the Atlantic en route to Genoa.

Daily Life

The Brooklyn Bridge is opened.

Sports

Soccer: The first English Football Association (F.A.) Cup final is played at the Kennington Oval in London.

Sports

Soccer: The first international soccer game is held when England plays Scotland.

Sports

The first U.S. ski club is founded in New Hampshire.

Religion

The International Bible Students Association, which evolved into the Jehovah’s Witness religious sect, is founded.

Social Issues

Birth Control: The “Comstock Law” forbids the transport of contraceptives in the United States.

Reform

Women's Suffrage Movement: Susan B. Anthony (1820-1906) and other feminists are arrested for trying to vote in the presidential election.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: Congress guarantees equal pay for equal work in federal jobs.

Politics

The American Granger movement, which organizes U.S. farmers in the midwest to counter monopolistic transportation practices by the railroads, reaches its peak membership.

Government

The North West Mounted Police are formed in Canada, later to become the Royal Canadian Mounted Police.

Government

President Ulysses S. Grant (1822-1885) is inaugurated for a second term, and Henry Wilson (1812-1875) is inaugurated as the nation's 18th Vice President.

Science

The American Metrological Society, the first organization to improve the system of weights and measures, is formed.

Science

Astronomer Maria Mitchell (1818-1889) founds the Association for the Advancement of Women.

Medicine

Dr. Mary Jane Safford (1834-1891) joins the faculty of the newly opened Boston University School of Medicine as a professor of women’s diseases.

Inventions

African American Inventors: Lewis Latimer (1848-1928) invents a water closet (toilet system) for railroad cars.

Technology

The first color photographs are developed.

Education

Author Sarah Chauncey Woolsey, a.k.a. Susan Coolidge (1835-1905), revolutionizes school story books by blending imaginary and real-life episodes.

Education

Public Education: William T. Harris (1835-1909), Superintendent of the St. Louis school system, incorporates kindergarten into the schools

Education

The discipline of sociology is established with Herbert Spencer’s (1820-1903) "The Study of Sociology."

Education

Libraries: Chicago Public Library opens.

Education

Women’s Colleges: The College of Notre Dame of Maryland is founded.

Education

Women’s Firsts: Ellen Swallow Richards (1842–1911), the first woman to be admitted to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, earns her B.S. degree. She becomes the first female professional chemist in the U.S.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Mark Twain (1835-1910) and Charles Dudley Warner (1829-1900) write "The Gilded Age;" the phrase becomes a descriptor for the era.

Ideas

“Set theory” in mathematics is established.

Hayes, Lucy

His second term as Governor over, Lucy (1831-1889) and Rutherford B. Hayes (1822-1881) move to Spiegel Grove, an estate in N.W. Ohio.

Hayes, Lucy

Manning Force Hayes (1873-1874), seventh son of Lucy and Rutherford B. Hayes, is born on August 1.

Mckinley, Ida

Ida McKinley (1873), daughter of William and Ida McKinley, is born April 1 and dies 4 months later in August. After the birth of her namesake, First Lady Ida McKinley is stricken with a litany of lifelong illnesses that included epileptic seizures and phlebitis.

Economics

Jay Cooke & Co.'s Wall Street banking house fails, and the American economy collapses into a sharp depression.

Economics

American Money: The U.S. goes on the gold standard, eliminating all silver currency.

Economics

E. Remington & Sons, gunmakers, begin to manufacture typewriters.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The New York "Daily Graphic" becomes the first illustrated daily newspaper.

Daily Life

San Francisco’s first cable streetcar goes into operation.

Daily Life

Crime and Punishment: Jesse James and his gang rob their first passenger train.

Sports

Football: The first American Football rules are formulated at a meeting in New York attended by delegates from Columbia, Princeton, Rutgers and Yale.

Sports

The modern game of lawn tennis is invented in England.

Sports

Women in Sports: 10 young women compete in a mile-long swimming contest in the Harlem River. Miss Deliliah Goboess wins the prize, a silk dress worth $175.

Popular Culture

Jules Verne publishes "Around the World in Eighty Days."

Religion

The Reform Union of Hebrew Congregations is organized in Cincinnati.

Law

Chief Justices: President U.S. Grant (1822-1885) nominates Morrison R. Waite (1816-1888) as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. He is confirmed two days later and serves for fourteen years.

Government

Presidents: Herbert Hoover (1875-1964), 31st President of the United States, is born in West Branch, Iowa.

War

Federal troops stationed in New Orleans during Reconstruction quell a revolt led by the White League against Louisiana's black state government.

Medicine

The streptococci and staphylococci bacilli are discovered.

Medicine

The field of osteopathy is founded in Kansas; Dr. Andrew Still becomes its first practitioner.

Inventions

African American Inventors: Lewis H. Latimer (1848-1928) co-invents an improved water closet, or bathroom, for trains.

Technology

The process of pressure cooking is introduced as a method of canning foods.

Technology

Airplanes: Felix Du Temple builds a man-carrying steam-powered monoplane. With a young French sailor at the controls, it makes a ski-jump take-off and a brief hop but cannot sustain flight.

Education

The Chautauqua movement begins in an effort to bring greater educational opportunity to America's isolated farmers and small towns through traveling lectures and correspondence-school courses.

Arts and Letters

Painting: A group of French Impressionists, including Claude Monet, Paul Cezanne, Edgar Degas, Edouard Manet, Camille Pissaro, and August Renoir, hold their first show. Rejected by a formal gallery, the exhibit was held by the artists themselves.

Fillmore, Abigail

Millard Fillmore (1800-1874), 13th president of the United States, dies on March 8 in Buffalo, NY. He is only the second vice president to succeed on the death of the incumbent president.

Hayes, Lucy

Manning Force Hayes, seventh son of Lucy and Rutherford B. Hayes, dies at the age of 13 months, probably of dysentery, in Fremont, Ohio on August 28.

Tyler, Letitia

Tazewell Tyler (1830-1874), the youngest of John and Letitia Tyler's children, dies January 8 as a result of alcoholism.

Hoover, Lou

Lou Henry (1874-1944), wife of Herbert Hoover, is born in Waterloo, Iowa, on March 29.

Cleveland, Frances

Oscar Folsom Cleveland (1874-?), son of Grover Cleveland and a widow, Maria Croftis Halpin, is born. Unsubstantiated reports suggest that Oscar died in his late 20's of alcoholism.

Grant, Julia

White House Weddings: Nellie Grant (1856-1922), daughter of Julia (1826-1902) and Ulysses S. Grant (1822-1885) marries Algernon Sartoris, a British diplomat, in the White House.

Economics

The first electric streetcar begins operation in New York City.

Economics

Stockholders of the Union Pacific railroad form a phony development bank, the Credit Mobilier. Several members of President Ulysses S. Grant’s (1822-1885) administration, including his vice president, are implicated in the scandal, though no one is ultimately indicted.

Daily Life

The first American zoo is established in Philadelphia.

Daily Life

Republican Party is first symbolized by an elephant. – drawn by Thomas Nast (1840-1902), in "Harper’s Weekly."

Sports

Women in Sports: Tennis is introduced to the U.S. by Mary Outerbridge, who saw it played in Bermuda.

Popular Culture

The original Siamese Twins, Chang and Eng (1811-1874), die. Born in Thailand of Chinese parents and joined at the chest, they were sold and exhibited in Europe and America.

Popular Culture

New York's Madison Square Garden opens under the name Barnum’s Hippodrome.

Reform

Women's Suffrage Movement: The Rhode Island legislature passes a women’s suffrage amendment to its constitution.

Reform

Temperance Movement: The Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) is founded in Cleveland, Ohio.

Reform

Labor Movement: Police on horses break up a demonstration of the unemployed in New York's Tompkins Square Park, injuring hundreds who came to protest the intense poverty resulting from the depression of the 1870s.

Law

Women's Suffrage Movement: In "Miner v. Hoppersatt," the Supreme Court rules that women are “persons” under the 14th Amendment, but are not entitled to vote.

Politics

Ex-political boss and New York politician William Marcy “Boss” Tweed (1823-1878) escapes from jail, flees to Cuba. He is apprehended, returned to New York, and dies in prison three years later.

Government

Rebellion in Cuba leads to deterioration of U.S.-Spanish relations.

Government

Civil Rights Movement: Congress passes the Civil Rights Act, guaranteeing blacks equal rights in public places and banning their exclusion from jury duty.

Government

British prime minister Disraeli (1804-1881) maneuvers to bring the Suez Canal, which was completed in 1869, under British control.

Medicine

The London Medical School for Women is founded.

Medicine

The bacillus that causes lumbar pneumonia—pneumococcus— is discovered.

Inventions

Thomas Edison (1847-1931) invents a duplicating process that uses a wax stencil, an early version of the mimeograph machine.

Inventions

An electric dental drill is patented.

Technology

The world’s first radio is operated by American Elihu Thomson (1853-1937).

Education

Women's Colleges: Wellesley College for women, founded by Henry and Pauline Durant, opens in Wellesley, Massachusetts, outside of Boston.

Arts and Letters

Opera: The first performance of French composer Georges Bizet's (1838-1875) opera "Carmen" takes place at the Opera Comique, Paris.

Arts and Letters

The first Gilbert and Sullivan operetta, "Trial by Jury," is written.

Johnson, Eliza

Andrew Johnson (1808-1875), 17th President of the U.S., dies July 31 in Carter's Station, Tennessee.

Taylor, Margaret

Anne Margaret Mackell Taylor Wood (1811-1875), daughter of Zachary and Margaret Taylor, dies December 2.

Lincoln, Mary

Mary Todd Lincoln’s (1818-1882) son Robert (1843-1926) has her declared insane; she manages to get herself released from the mental hospital, and goes to live with her sister in Springfield, Illinois.

Hayes, Lucy

Rutherford B. Hayes (1822-1893) runs for his third term as Governor of Ohio, and wins.

Mckinley, Ida

Katherine "Katie" McKinley (1871-1875), the first child of William and Ida McKinley, dies June 25 from typhoid fever.

Economics

Luxury hotels are opened in Saratoga Springs, New York, and San Francisco, marking the development of a luxury-seeking elite in the United States.

Economics

The first factory using the Bessemer steel-making process is built by Andrew Carnegie (1835-1919).

Daily Life

Newspapers: The "Times" of London becomes the first newspaper to print a daily weather chart.

Sports

Horse Racing: The first Kentucky Derby is held at Churchill Downs, Kentucky, won by Aristides.

Sports

Capt. Matthew Webb (1848-1883) becomes the first person to swim across the English Channel.

Sports

The first roller skating rink is opened in London.

Sports

Women in Sports: Baseball: The "Blondes" and "Brunettes" play their first match In Springfield, IL on Sept. 11. Newspapers heralded the event as the "first game of baseball ever played in public for gate money between feminine ball-tossers."

Religion

Mary Baker Eddy’s (1821-1910) "Science and Health" is first published.

Social Issues

Native Americans: Comanche chief Quanah Parker (1850-1911) ends his resistance to white settlement of Texas, enabling American expansion to proceed rapidly.

Social Issues

Jim Crow Laws: Segregation: Tennessee passes a "Jim Crow" law segregating blacks and whites on railroads (which are private, and so not covered by the Civil Rights Act).

Politics

Rutherford B. Hayes (1822-1893) is elected the 19th President of the U.S., and William A. Wheeler (1819-1887) is elected as the nation's 19th Vice President. The election is so close that it is not finally concluded until 1877.

Government

New State: Colorado becomes the 38th state of the United States

War

Indian Wars: At the Battle of the Little Big Horn (Custer’s Last Stand), Sioux Indians led by Chief Crazy Horse routed the U.S. 7th Cavalry led by Col. Custer (1839-1876).

War

Indian Wars: In one of the final periods of intense Native American resistance to American expansion, Apache leader Geronimo (1829-1909) begins a 10-year reign of war and terror against white settlers in the American Southwest.

Science

Thomas Edison (1847-1931) establishes Menlo Park as America’s first research laboratory.

Medicine

The bacillus that causes anthrax is discovered by Robert Koch (1843-1910).

Inventions

Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922) patents the first telephone.

Inventions

The first carpet sweeper is patented by inventor Melville Bissell (1843-1889), of Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Inventions

Thomas Edison (1847-1931) patents the mimeograph machine.

Education

Higher Education: Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore opens.

Education

The Kindergarten exhibit at the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia enhances kindergarten’s popularity.

Education

Libraries: The American Library Association is founded.

Arts and Letters

Opera: The first complete performance of Richard Wagner’s (1813-1883) operatic Ring cycle opens in Germany.

Johnson, Eliza

Eliza McCardle Johnson (1810-1876) dies of tuberculosis in December at her daughter's, Martha Patterson, house.

Van Buren, Hannah

Smith Thommpson Van Buren (1817-1876), son of Martin and Hannah Van Buren dies.

Lincoln, Mary

A second jury finds Mary Todd Lincoln (1818-1882) sane. Later she travels again to Europe and spends most of her time in France.

Hayes, Lucy

Rutherford B. Hayes (1822-1893) runs for President of the U.S. His election is in dispute until January of 1877 because of contested election results in several states.

Economics

Railroad History: All Southern Pacific and Central Pacific passenger cars converted to air brakes.

Daily Life

The Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks is organized.

Sports

Baseball: The Chicago Cubs hold their first National League game, beating Louisville 4-0.

Sports

Baseball: The U.S. National Baseball League is established

Sports

The first tennis tournament in the U.S. is held.

Sports

Polo is introduced to the U.S. from England.

Sports

Women in Sports: Ten percent of the members of the newly created Appalachin Mountain Club are women.

Popular Culture

Mark Twain (1835-1910) publishes his book “The Adventures of Tom Sawyer”.

Social Issues

Immigration: California Senate committee investigates the “social, moral, and political effect of Chinese immigration.”

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: A Declaration of the Rights of Women is distributed at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Matilda Gage.

Reform

Prohibition: An early Prohibition Amendment to the Constitution is proposed in the House of Representatives.

Government

Women's Suffrage Movement: The House of Representatives defeats a bill to amend the Constitution to allow women to vote where they are taxed.

Government

British imperialism is nearing its zenith as Britain annexes the South African Republic, and Queen Victoria (1819-1901) is proclaimed empress of India.

Government

Rutherford B. Hayes (1822-1893) is inaugurated as the 19th President of the U.S., and William A. Wheeler (1819-1887) is inaugurated as the nation's 19th Vice President.

War

Indian Wars: The Nez Perce tribes in the northwestern United States battle with American troops after years of passive noncompliance with treaties. The tribes ultimately surrender; their leader, Chief Joseph (1840-1904), gives a surrender speech considered one of the finest statements on Native American displacement.

Science

U.S. astronomer Asaph Hall (1829-1907) discovers Deimos, ("panic" in Greek) a satellite of Mars, at the Naval Observatory in Washington.

Medicine

The process for staining bacteria so as to see them under a microscope is invented by Robert Koch (1843-1910).

Inventions

Copper wire is invented.

Inventions

Thomas Edison (1847-1931) invents the phonograph and makes the first sound recording.

Education

Libraries: Women's Firsts: Minerva Saunders is the first librarian to end age restrictions on borrowing books and to create a seperate childern's section.

Education

The YWCA in New York City establishes the first known typing course for women.

Education

Women's Firsts: Education of Women: Helen McGill(White) becomes the first woman in the U.S. to earn a Ph.D. degree; it is from Boston University, and her field is Greek drama.

Education

Public Education: Reconstruction ends in 1877 when federal troops, which had occupied the South since the end of the Civil War are withdrawn. Whites regain political control of the South and lay the foundations of legal segregation.

Education

Children’s Books: Anna Sewell (1820-1878) is known only for one book, the perennial favorite "Black Beauty, the Autobiography of a Horse."

Arts and Letters

Drama: American Theatre: Henrik Ibsen writes "Pillars of Society," an early example of the Realism in theatre that begins to compete with melodrama. With the advent of early realism, the role of the regisseur, or strong director, begins to develop.

Arts and Letters

Dance: Tchaikovsky's (1840-1893) ballet "Swan Lake" is first performed at the Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow.

Arts and Letters

Painting: The third Impressionist exhibition is held in Paris.

Tyler, Letitia

Robert Tyler (1816-1877), the first son of John and Letitia Christian Tyler, dies December 3.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy Hayes (1831-1889) and Rutherford B. Hayes (1822-1893) celebrate their 25th anniversary in the White House.

Hayes, Lucy

A newspaper first refers to the wife of the President as the "First Lady." Lucy Hayes (1831-1889) is also the first Presidential wife to take the Oath of Office in the White House.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy Hayes (1831-1889) oversees the first Easter egg-rolling contest at the White House.

Economics

A drink called root beer is first made and distributed by Charles Elmer Hires (1851-1937).

Economics

Railroad History: Four feuding American railroads cease their price wars and join together to cut wages, prompting the great railroad strike of 1877. Federal troops end the strike, but only after killing some workers and injuring many.

Economics

American Money: The Department of the Treasury's bureau of Engraving and Printing starts printing all U.S. currency, although other steps are done outside.

Discovery

British explorer Sir Henry Morton Stanley (1841-1904) reaches the mouth of the Congo River.

Daily Life

The first public telephones are installed in the U.S.

Daily Life

The first Westminster Dog Show is held.

Sports

Women in Sports: The first women's field hockey club is started in Surrey, England.

Sports

Cricket: The first cricket match between Australia and England is played in Melbourne, the home side winning by 45 runs.

Sports

The first Wimbledon tennis championships are held.

Social Issues

Immigration: A mob in San Francisco sets fire to two dozen Chinese laundries in the city, sparking months of anti-Chinese violence.

Social Issues

Racism: Reconstruction in the South ends, and with it any effort of the Federal government to enforce the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments in the South for nearly 100 years.

Social Issues

Immigration: United States Congress investigates the criminal influence of Chinese immigrants.

Politics

Third Parties: The Greenback-Labor Party is formed by labor organizations and advocates cheap money.

Politics

For the first time in twenty years, Democrats win control of both houses of Congress.

War

Indian Wars: Lincoln County War erupts in southeast New Mexico.

Medicine

Epidemics: The last great epidemic of yellow fever kills more than 13,000 in the lower Mississippi valley.

Inventions

The microphone is invented by David Hughes (1831-1900).

Inventions

The phonograph, invented by Thomas Edison (1847-1931), is patented.

Inventions

Sir Joseph Wilson Swan (1828-1914) is the first person to invent a practical and longer-lasting electic lightbulb.

Technology

Airplanes: Bishop Milton Wright (1828-1917), then living in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, brings home a rubber band-powered Penaud-type helicopter for his sons. They build several successful copies. Orville tells his schoolteacher that he and his brother Wilbur plan to build a large enough machine to carry the both of them. But when they try to build a larger model, it doesn’t fly.

Technology

The first private connection by telephone in Great Britain was made on the Isle of Wight when Queen Victoria (1819-1901) spoke to Thomas Biddulph.

Education

Public Education: Kindergarten is incorporated into the San Francisco public school system.

Education

Women's Colleges: Physicist Sarah Frances Whiting (1846-1927) opens the second undergraduate physics laboratory in the U.S. at Wellesley College.

Arts and Letters

Dance: "Swan Lake" is first performed at the Bolshoi Theater in Moscow.

Arts and Letters

Gilbert and Sullivan write "H.M.S. Pinafore."

Arts and Letters

Literature: Thomas Hardy (1840-1928) writes "Return of the Native."

Arts and Letters

Drama: Actress Ellen Terry (1848-1928) becomes a part of the Irving Company at London's Lyceum Theatre.

Ideas

Charles Pierce (1839-1914) publishes "How to Make Our Ideas Clear," developing the philosophy of Pragmatism.

Harrison, Anna

John Scott Harrison (1804-1878), son of William Henry and Anna Harrison, dies May

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy Hayes (1831-1889) becomes widely known for her concern for and help to those in need in Washington, especially Civil War veterans and their families.

Economics

The name "Vaseline," a brand of petroleum jelly, is trademarked by Robert A. Chesebrough (1856-?).

Economics

The first bicycles are manufactured in the U.S.

Economics

The first commercial telephone switchboard goes into operation in New Haven, Connecticut.

Economics

American Money: The Department of the Treasury is authorized to issue Silver Certificates in exchange for silver dollars.

Economics

Women's Firsts: Emma Nutt becomes the first woman telephone operator when she goes to worl for Edwin Holmes and his Telephone Dispatch Company in Boston, Massachusetts.

Discovery

The largest yellow diamond ever discovered is found in the Kimberly Mine of South Africa. It is purchased by New York's Tiffany & Co. and becomes known as the Tiffany Diamond.

Daily Life

The first telephone book is issued in New Haven, CT.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The first full-page newspaper advertisements appear.

Sports

Women in Sports: Woman pedestrian Ada Anderson walks 3,000 quarter-miles in 3,000 quarter hours over the course of a month in New York' Mozart Hall, kicking off a series of "lady walker" matches.

Sports

The National Archery Association is organized.

Popular Culture

A London tunesmith introduces the word jingoism into the British parlance in the lyric: "We don't want to fight, but by jingo if we do/We've got the men, we've got the ships, we've got the money too." The word would characterize an era of British imperialism.

Popular Culture

Showboats, which had shut down during the Civil War, are revived as entertainment centers on the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers.

Religion

Pittsburgh minister Charles Taze Russell (1852-1916), who will go on to found the Watchtower Society associated with the Jehovah''s Witnesses, preaches that the second coming happened invisibly in 1874 and that the world will end in 1914.

Religion

Anna Howard Shaw (1847-1919) graduates as the only woman in her class in Boston University's divinity school; when she applies for ordination, her application is denied and her license to preach repealed

Social Issues

Abortion: Anthony Comstock, head of the New York Society for the Suppression fo Vice, entraps New York abortion provider and brothel owner Madame Restell into giving him abortifacients and contraceptives by telling her his wife is pregnant and they cannot afford another child. He then exposes her, slapping her with a lawsuit. Fearing conviction, she commits suicide.

Social Issues

Racism: The relocation of former slaves to Kansas, called the "Exoduster Movement," begins. Within the year, 30,000 blacks migrate to Kansas.

Reform

Labor Movement: Labor struggle intensifies in the United States when the Atchison, Topkea, and Santa Fe railraod cuts engineers' pay 10 percent. Striking workers shut the railroad down for five days. The militia is called in, and after a militiaman kills a bystander, labor leaders are arrested.

Law

Women’s Firsts: Belva Ann Lockwood (1830-1917) becomes the first woman admitted to practice before the U.S. Supreme Court.

Politics

Irish nationalist Michael Davitt (1846-1906) founds the Irish Land League to resist absentee landlords and fight for a more equitable distribution of land in Ireland and independence from Britain.

Politics

Prime Minister Otto von Bismarck (1862-1890) engineers an Austro-German alliance in which either side will offer the other aid in the event of an attack from Russia. It's one of a series of alliances that prefigure the battle lines of World War I.

Government

President Hayes (1822-1893) tries to reform the Civil Service, and to settle the question of Indian lands; large numbers of native Americans visit with him in Washington to argue their need for justice.

Government

National Capital: Electric lighting is installed in the Capitol building.

Government

Immigration: A bill to restrict Chinese immigration is vetoed by President Hayes (1822-1893).

War

The Zulu War: The Zulu War begins between the British of the Cape Colony and the natives of Zululand.

Science

Russian pathologist demonstrates by using dogs that the stomach will produce gastric juices even if there is no food, suggeting that reflexes are learned and conditioned, not natural, and that people can be taught to respond to anything.

Science

The discovery of saccharin is reported.

Medicine

Women's Firsts: Mary Mahoney(1845-1926) becomes the first black professional nurse in the U.S.

Inventions

Thomas Edison (1847-1931) invents a workable electric light at his laboratory in Menlo Park, New Jersey.

Technology

An internal combustion engine is used to power a "horseless carriage" by George Selden (1846-1922).

Technology

Thomas Edison (1847-1931) gives the first public demonstration of an eletric incandescent lamp in Menlo Park, New Jeresy.

Education

Native Americans: Indian Education: The Carlisle Indian School is founded in Pennsylvania, in an aggressive U.S. government campaign to "civilize" Indian children.

Education

Women's Colleges: The first class at what was to become Radcliffe College, then called "The Society for the Collegiate Instruction of Women," begins.

Education

American educator Anna Hallowell(1831-1905) establishes free kindergartens in poor neighborhoods in Philadelphia.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821-1881) writes "The Brothers Karamzov."

Arts and Letters

Opera: "Evgeny Onegin," or "Eugene Onegin," best known opera by Russian composer Tchaikovsky (1840-1893), receives its first performance at the Maily Theater in Moscow.

Arts and Letters

Drama: Henrik Ibsen's (1828-1906) modern classic about the erosion of traditional domestic roles, "A Doll's House," is performed for the first time in Copenhagen.

Arts and Letters

"The Pirates of Penzance"(or "The Slave of Duty"), an operetta by Gilbert and Sullivan, has its first performance in New York City.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Among Henry James' (1843-1916) masterpieces is "Daisy Miller," in which the young and innocent American, Daisy, finds her values in conflict with European sophistication.

Ideas

American economist Henry George (1839-1897) writes "Progress and Poverty," in which he observes increasing economic inequality in the United States.

Johnson, Eliza

Andrew Johnson Jr. (1852-1879), son of Andrew and Eliza Johnson, dies March 12.

Coolidge, Grace

Grace Anna Goodhue Coolidge (1879-1957), wife of Calvin Coolidge, is born in Burlignton, Vermont on January 3.

Taylor, Margaret

Richard Taylor (1826-1879), son of Zachary and Margaret Taylor, dies April 12.

Economics

The first five-and-dime store is founded by Frank Woolworth (1852-1919) in Utica, New York; it later moves to Lancaster, Pennsylvania in the same year.

Daily Life

Newspapers: Henry Grady (1850-1889) takes over the "Atlanta Constitution," in the pages of which he begins to exhort the South to attract northern capital and transform itself into a modern industrial region--to little avail.

Daily Life

Electric arc lamps are installed on the streets of Cleveland, Ohio, by Charles Brush (1849-1929).

Sports

The first major skiing contest occurs in Norway.

Popular Culture

Annie Oakley (1860-1926) defeats Frank Butler in a shooting match; they later marry and tour the country in Wild West shows.

Religion

St. Patrick's Cathedral opens in New York after twenty-six years of work.

Religion

Women’s Firsts: Mary Baker Eddy (1821-1910) establishes the Church of Christ, Scientist, becoming the first woman to found a major religion, Christian Science.

Social Issues

Immigration: California adopts a new constitution which, in part, prohibits the employment of Chinese workers.

Social Issues

Racism: With federal Reconstruction over and national troops out of the South, political repression of southern blacks starts to intensify.

Reform

Temperance Movement: Frances Willard (1839-1898) becomes president of the Women's Christian Temperance Union, campaigning also for women's rights with the motto, "Do Everything."

Law

Civil Rights Movement: The Supreme Court rules that the exclusion of Blacks from jury duty is unconstitutional.

Politics

James A. Garfield (1831-1881) beats President Ulysses Grant (1822-1885) in a hotly contested election and becomes the 20th President of the U.S.; Chester A. Arthur (1829-1886) is elected as the 20th Vice President.

Medicine

The parasite that causes malaria is discovered.

Medicine

Rubber gloves are introduced in hospital operating rooms after nurse Caroline Hampton developed a skin allergy to the antiseptic solutions used; when postoperative infections dropped dramatically, such gloves became part of the surgical team’s standard uniform.

Inventions

Thomas Edison (1847-1931) is granted a patent for his incandescent light.

Inventions

The British Perforated Paper Company invents a form of toilet paper.

Inventions

Englishman, John Milne (1850-1913) invents the modern seismograph.

Technology

Airplanes: Otto Lilienthal (1848-1896), Germany, begins to test cambered wing surfaces and measures their lifting capability.

Technology

The first large furnace for making steel is developed by Andrew Carnegie (1835-1919).

Technology

The first wireless telephone message is sent by Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922) through a “photophone,” a devise that transmits sound on a beam of light.

Education

Libraries: The initial funding of buildings for public libraries is begun by Andrew Carnegie (1835-1919).

Education

Public Education: Kindergarten is incorporated into the Chicago public school system.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Russian novelist Fyodor Dostoyevsky (1821-1881) publishes "The Brothers Karamazov," a year before he dies.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Lew Wallace (1827-1905) writes "Ben Hur."

Arts and Letters

Sculpture: Rodin’s (1840-1917) sculpture, “The Thinker,” is exhibited in model form.

Arts and Letters

Gilbert and Sullivan produce "The Pirates of Penzance" in London. It runs for over 300 performances.

Garfield, Lucretia

Lucretia Rudolph Garfield (1832-1918) is the first President's wife to be kissed by her husband at his inauguration.

Arthur, Ellen

Ellen Lewis Herndon Arthur (1837-1880), wife of Chester A. Arthur (1830-1886), dies of pneumonia on January 10, ten months before her husband is elected as Vice President of the United States.

Harding, Florence

Eugene Marshall "Pete" DeWolfe (1880-1915), son of Warren and Florence Harding, is born September 22.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy Hayes (1831-1889) accepts the national presidency of the Woman’s Home Missionary Society of the Methodist Church, a group that helps poor women and children.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy Hayes (1831-1889) and Rutherford (1822-1893) spend 72 days touring the west, the first such trip by a sitting President.

Lincoln, Mary

Mary Todd Lincoln (1818-1882) returns to the United States in 1880 and again goes to the Edwards' home in Springfield to live. She is slowly going blind.

Harrison, Caroline

Benjamin Harrison (1831-1901) is elected to the U.S. Senate from Indiana. He and Caroline Harrison (1832-1892) move to Washington, DC.

Economics

The De Beers Mining Corp. is founded by Cecil Rhodes (1853-1902) and Albert Beit (1853-1906) , both 27 years old. Rhodes will eventually acquire a near-total monopoly on the South African diamond industry.

Economics

The population of Los Angeles, California, doubles between 1870 and 1880, a sign of the urbanization of the American west.

Economics

Census: The U.S. population is 50.1 million people, including about 2.8 million immigrants.

Economics

Newspapers: Newspaper growth continues unabated in the postwar years. An astounding 11,314 different papers are recorded in the census.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The first photographs are seen in newspapers that are printed using halftones.

Daily Life

The first canned fruits and vegetables appear in stores.

Daily Life

The first telephone box for public use goes into service.

Daily Life

Electricity first lights the street lights in New York City.

Popular Culture

J.C. Harris publishes his “Uncle Remus” stories.

Popular Culture

The game of bingo is developed from an Italian lotto game.

Religion

Women Firsts: Anna Howard Shaw (1847-1919) is the first woman ordained by the Methodist Church.

Religion

Frances Cabrini (later Mother Cabrini) (1850-1917) founds the Missionary Sisters of the Sacred Heart in Italy.

Social Issues

Poverty: The American Salvation Army is established in Philadelphia.

Social Issues

Immigration: Italy’s troubled economy, crop failures, and political climate begin the start of mass immigration with nearly four million Italian immigrants arriving in the United States.

Reform

Labor Movement: The word boycott comes into use when Irish tenant farmers refuse to harvest crops on an estate managed by British army captain Charles Cunningham Boycott (1832-1897).

Law

The United States Supreme Court rules that the Civil War income tax law of 1861 is constitutional.

Politics

Irish nationalist leader Charles Stewart Parnell (1846-1891) is imprisoned for agitating for home rule. From prison, he continues to direct tenant farmers to withhold rent as a means of gaining self-government.

Government

The assassination of Czar Alexander II in 1881 prompts civil unrest and economic instability throughout Russia.

Government

James A. Garfield (1831-1881) is inaugurated as the 20th President of the U.S.; Chester A. Arthur (1829-1886) is inaugurated as the 20th Vice President.

Government

Vice President Chester A. Arthur (1830-1886) becomes the 21st President of the United States upon the assassination of James A. Garfield (1831-1881). No new Vice President is selected.

Medicine

Vaccines: Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) develops an anthrax vaccine, and vaccinates a herd of sheep against the disease.

Medicine

"Angel of the battlefield" Clara Barton (1821-1912) founds the American Association of the Red Cross.

Medicine

The idea that mosquitoes are the carriers of yellow fever is proposed.

Inventions

Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922) invents the first crude metal detector.

Technology

Airplanes: Louis Moulliard, France, writes another milestone in aeronautics, Empire of the Air, in which he proposes fixed-wing gliders with cambered wings, like birds.

Technology

Battery Technology: Leclanche's (1839-1882) battery is quite heavy and prone to breakage; the idea of encapsulating both the negative electrode and porous pot into a zinc cup is patented by J.A. Thiebaut in 1881.

Technology

The first color photographs are produced by Frederick E. Ives.

Education

Higher Education: Booker T. Washington (1856-1915) organizes the Normal and Industrail Institute for Negroes, which later becomes Tuskeegee Institute.

Education

Rachel Bodley, dean of the Women’s Medical College of Pennsylvania conducts a statistical survey about the careers of her school’s graduates, published as the pamphlet The College Story, one of the earliest studies of women in the professions.

Education

Children’s Books: The very first appearance, under a pen-name, of Robert Louis Stevenson’ s(1850-1894) first and best-known children's adventure story, "Treasure Island," os published in the penny weekly, "Young Folks, A Boys' and Girls' Paper of Instructive and Entertaining Literature."

Education

Women’s Colleges: Spelman College is founded in Georgia as the first black women's college.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Henry James (1843-1916) writes "The Portrait of a Lady," in which, again, a young American woman becomes a victim of her provincialism during her travels in Europe.

Arts and Letters

D’Oyly Carte (1844-1901) builds the electrified Savoy Theatre in London.

Arts and Letters

The Boston Symphony Orchestra is founded.

Garfield, Lucretia

James Abram Garfield (1831-1881), 20th President of the U.S., is assassinated on July 2 and dies from the assault on September 19 in Elberon, New Jersey.

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy Hayes (1831-1889) and Rutherford (1822-1893) leave the White House at the end of his term and move to their home at Spiegel Grove in Ohio.

Harrison, Caroline

Benjamin Harrison (1831-1901) begins his term in the U.S. Senate. Caroline Harrison suffers a bad fall “and her health was delicate after that.”

Daily Life

The first electric tram goes into public service in Germany, near Berlin.

Daily Life

Crime and Punishment: Brothers Wyatt (1848-1929) and Virgil Earp (1843-1905) lead the shootout of Western movie fame against Ike Clanton''s gang at the O.K. Corral in Arizona territory.

Sports

The first U.S. Lawn Tennis Championship is held.

Popular Culture

The first vaudeville theatre to feature family entertainment is opened in New York City.

Popular Culture

Twenty-one-year old William Bonney, a.k.a. Billy the Kid (1859-61 exact year unknown-1881), escapes imprisonment but is hunted down and shot. Though he had killed 21 people, he becomes a legend, and pop retellings of his life story are hawked only weeks after his death.

Popular Culture

Mark Twain (1835-1910) publishes "The Prince and the Pauper."

Religion

The Vatican archives are opened to scholars.

Social Issues

Native Americans: "A Century of Injustice" is published by Helen Hunt Jackson, about mistreatment of Indians.

Social Issues

Segregation: Tennessee legislature passes a law mandating that black passengers be segregated on railroads. "Jim Crow" legislation is soon imitated throughout the South.

Reform

Labor Movement: The American Federation of Labor is formed.

Reform

Women's Suffrage Movement: Susan B. Anthony finances and publishes The History of Women’s Suffrage, which eventually totals six volumes

Law

Women's Rights Movement: Two U.S. judges decide that women may sue their husbands for assault and battery.

Government

Immigration: The Chinese Exclusion Act, which bars Chinese laborers from coming to the United States, goes into effect.

Government

The 3-mile limit for territorial waters is agreed upon at the Hague Convention.

Government

Presidents: Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882-1945), the 32nd President of the United States, is born in Hyde Park, New York.

Medicine

Robert Koch (1843-1910) discovers the tuberculosis bacillus and establishes that the disease is communicable.

Medicine

Hypnosis is used to treat hysteria, signaling the beginning of psychoanalysis.

Medicine

Surgical sutures made from catgut thread are replaced with silk ones.

Medicine

Vaccines: Louis Pasteur (1822- 1895) develops a rabies vaccine.

Inventions

The electric fan and the electric flat iron are invented.

Inventions

African American Inventors: Lewis H. Latimer (1848-1928) patents the carbon filament for electric light bulbs.

Technology

Thomas Edison (1847-1931) designs the first hydroelectric plant in Appleton, WI.

Technology

The first motion picture is made, using a “rifle-camera” that shoots 12 images in one second.

Education

Children''s Books: Children''s classic "Pinocchio" is written by Italian author Carlo Collodi (1826-1890).

Education

Education of Women: The American Association of University Women is founded by Alice Elvira Freeman Palmer (1855-1902).

Arts and Letters

Opera: Wagner's (1813-1883) opera "Parsifal" is first performed, at Bayreuth, western Germany.

Arts and Letters

Tchaikovsky (1840-1893) writes the "1812 Overture."

Arts and Letters

American Theatre: David Belasco (1853-1931) apprenticed in San Francisco, moves to Madison Square Theatre in New York as stage manager and becomes an independent producer in 1895.

Cleveland, Frances

Grover Cleveland (1837-1906) is elected Mayor of Buffalo and then Governor of New York, as a Democrat. He wins reputation for uncovering political corruption.

Lincoln, Mary

Mary Todd Lincoln (1818-1882) dies of “paralysis” at her sister Elizabeth’s house on July 15 in Springfield, Illinois.

Economics

American rail magnate William Vanderbilt (1856-1938) eliminates mail trains from Chicago, because they are not profitable.

Economics

John D. Rockefeller's (1839-1937) Standard Oil Trust brings 95 percent of the American petroleum industry under the control of a nine-man board.

Economics

Commercially supplied electrical power is inaugurated in New York City.

Daily Life

Crime and Punishment: After more than 15 years of robbing banks, outlaw Jesse James (1847- 1882) is shot in the back at St Joseph, Missouri, by Robert Ford, one of his own gang.

Daily Life

Ellen Swallow Richards (1842-1911) writes "The Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning."

Daily Life

Holidays: The first Labor Day celebration is held in New York City.

Sports

Women in Sports: At the YWCA in Boston, the first athletic games for women are held.

Sports

Baseball: The American Baseball Association is founded.

Sports

Boxing: John L. Sullivan (1858-1918) wins the heavyweight boxing championship.

Sports

The National Croquet Association is founded.

Popular Culture

Robert Louis Stevenson (1850-1894) writes "Treasure Island."

Popular Culture

Jumbo the elephant appears in P.T. Barnum's (1810-1891) Barnum and Bailey Circus; he is advertised as the "largest elephant in or out of captivity."

Popular Culture

Clan warfare between the Hatfields and McCoys breaks out in southern Appalachia. The bloodbath, which has its roots in lingering Civil War tensions, lasts for six years until Kentucky authorities seize some of the members of the Hatfield family.

Religion

The Knights of Columbus, a fraternal organization of Catholic men, is founded in Connecticut.

Social Issues

Immigration: Russia’s May Laws severely restrict the ability of Jewish citizens to live and work in Russia. The country’s instability prompts more than three million Russians to immigrate to the United States over three decades.

Social Issues

Immigration: The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 suspends immigration of Chinese laborers under penalty of imprisonment and deportation.

Reform

Women''s Rights Movement: Two U.S. judges decide that women may sue their husbands for assault and battery.

Law

Civil Rights Movement: The Supreme Court declares the Civil Rights Act of 1875 unconstitutional (except for jury duty), ruling that the government can protect political, not social, rights.

Government

The United States adopts standard time.

Government

The U.S. Civil Service Commission is established by the Pendleton Act.

War

Congress orders the building of ships that begin the modern U.S. Navy.

Science

The fact that an electrical current can be sent through space—the basis of electronics—is discovered by Thomas Edison (1847-1931).

Medicine

The bacillus that causes diphtheria is discovered.

Inventions

English engineer Hiram Maxim (1840-1916) invents the fully automatic machine gun.

Inventions

Young German-American entrepreneur Julius Schmidt invents a modern version of the condom.

Inventions

African American Inventors: Jan Ernst Matzeliger (1852-1889) patents a machine that can make up to 700 shoes a day.

Technology

The Brooklyn Bridge, the world's first suspension bridge, opens to pedestrian traffic, linking Manhattan to Brooklyn.

Technology

The first “skyscraper” is built in Chicago: it has 10 floors.

Technology

Airplanes: John J. Montgomery (1858-1911) of California builds a monoplane glider and makes the first gliding flight in America.

Technology

Airplanes: Charles Parsons, England, inventor of the turbine motor, tests a small 1/4 horsepower steam turbine engine in a model airplane, propelling it for approximately 300 feet. Although Parsons experiments had little effect on the development of aviation, some consider this to be the first jet aircraft.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Poet Emma Lazarus (1849-1887) publishes the sonnet “The New Colossus,” which will be inscribed on the Statue of Liberty.

Ideas

Philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche's (1844-1900) "Thus Spake Zarathustra" appears in print.

Tyler, Julia

John Alexander "Alex" Tyler (1848-1883), son of John Tyler and his second wife Julia, dies September 1.

Johnson, Eliza

Mary Johnson Stover Brown (1832-1883), daughter of Andrew and Eliza Johnson, dies April 19.

Hayes, Lucy

The Hayes family is happy in retirement at Spiegel Grove. Lucy Hayes (1831-1889) spends a lot of time in the garden, and supervising the farm. She also continues to correspond with national figures and to give parties.

Economics

Railroad History: The Northern Pacific Railroad across the United States is completed.

Economics

A deep drought begins on the western plains of the United States. The suffering of farmers produces radical political activity, such as the Farmer''s Alliance, one of the first demonstrations of Populism as a movement in the 19th century.

Economics

Railroad History: The Northern Pacific and Southern Pacific are completed.

Daily Life

Magazines: "The Ladies’ Home Journal" is founded.

Daily Life

Magazines: "Life Magazine" is established.

Sports

Women in Sports: Mrs. M. C. Howell wins her first archery title. She will win the national championship for women 17 times between 1883 and 1907.

Sports

Matthew Webb (1848-1883), first man to swim the English Channel (in 1875) drowns while attempting to swim the rapids above Niagara Falls.

Sports

The first annual New York Horse Show is held in New York City.

Popular Culture

The first vaudeville theater, the Gaiety Museum, opens in Boston.

Popular Culture

William F. Cody (1846-1917) organizes his first “Wild West Show.”

Popular Culture

Mark Twain (1835-1910) publishes "Life on the Mississippi."

Popular Culture

Howard Pyle (1853-1911) writes (and illustrates) "The Merry Adventures of Robin Hood."

Politics

Third Parties: Belva Ann Lockwood (1830-1917) runs for president as the candidate for the Equal Rights Party; she loses.

Politics

Third Parties: The Anti-Monopoly Party and the Greenback-Labor Party join to form People's Party, supporting many liberal measures including a graduated income tax.

Politics

Democrat Grover Cleveland (1837-1906) defeats the Republican "plumed knight" James Blaine (1830-1893), becoming the first Democratic president of the United Staes since before the Civil War, and the 22nd President of the U.S. Thomas A. Hendricks (1819-1885) becomes the nation's 21st Vice President.

Government

The Bureau of Labor and the Department of the Interior are created by Congress.

Government

National Capitol: The capstone is placed on the Washington Monument.

Government

Presidents: Harry S. Truman (1884-1972) , 33rd president of the United States (1945- 53), is born in Lamar, Missouri.

Medicine

The bacillus that causes tetanus is discovered.

Inventions

Ottmar Mergenthaler (1854-1899) invents the Linotype machine, the first mechanized printing typesetter, which will speed up the presses for newspapers.

Inventions

The first practical turbine engine is invented.

Inventions

The first accurate adding machine is invented.

Inventions

The first coin-operated weighing machine is patented by Percy Everitt.

Technology

The first practical fountain pen is manufactured by Lewis E. Waterman (1837-1901).

Technology

Airplanes: Alexander F. Mozhaiski, Russia, builds a steam-powered monoplane and tests it at Krasnoye Selo, near St. Petersburg. It takes off on a jump ramp and flies for approximately 100 feet before crashing. This is the second power-assisted take-off in history.

Technology

Airplanes: Horatio F. Phillips, England, experiments with cambered wings in a wind tunnel and lays down the scientific foundation for modern airfoil design. He is the first to discover that when the wind blows across a curved surface, it creates a low pressure area on top of the surface and high pressure beneath it. This, in turn, generates lift.

Education

Native Americans: Indian Education: Educational policy regarding Native Americans is articulated at the Lake Mohonk Conference.

Education

The first volume of the Oxford English Dictionary is published.

Education

The National Education Association forms a kindergarten department.

Education

Women's Colleges: The first state-supported college for women, Mississippi State College for women is chartered.

Roosevelt, Eleanor

Anna Eleanor Roosevelt (1884-1962) is born in New York City on October 11. She is the seventh of ten First Ladies born in New York, the "mother state" of presidential wives.

Roosevelt, Edith

Alice Lee Roosevelt Longworth (1884-1980), only child of first marriage of Theodore Roosevelt and Alice Hathaway Lee Roosevelt, is born February 12.

Daily Life

The Statue of Liberty is presented to America by the people of France.

Daily Life

The first roller coaster opens at Coney Island in Brooklyn, New York City.

Sports

Baseball: Baseball gets new rules and goes on to become an extremely popular sport in America. Its growth is also linked to the development of cities and urban culture.

Sports

Women in Sports: Women's singles tennis competition is added to Wimbledon. Maud Watson wins in both 1884 and '85.

Sports

Baseball: The first U.S. baseball championship is won by Providence (RI) of the National League, beating the New York Metropolitans, 3-0.

Popular Culture

American author Mark Twain (1835-1910) publishes "Huckleberry Finn."

Religion

Charles Taze Russell (1852-1916) founds the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society (which led to the Jehovah''''s Witnesses in the United States).

Social Issues

Native Americans: The novel "Ramona" is written by Helen Hunt Jackson (1830-1885) dramatizing the oppression of Indians in the American west.

Government

Immigration: The Contract Labor Act prohibits the importing of laborors who then work for the cost of transit; skilled, domestic, and professional workers are exempted.

Government

National Capitol: The Washington Monument is dedicated.

Government

Grover Cleveland (1837-1906) is inaugurated as the 22nd President of the United Staes and Thomas A. Hendricks (1819-1885) in inaugurated as the nation's 21st Vice President.

Government

President Cleveland (1837-1906) proposes the suspension of the minting of silver dollars, fearing that silver is undermining the nation’s gold reserves.

War

Indian Wars: Apache Indians leave their reservation in Arizona and continue their war against Whites under Geronimo.

Science

In memory of ornithologist James Audubon (1785-1851), the National Audubon Society is founded in the United States to study bird species.

Science

Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911) establishes the uniqueness of fingerprints.

Medicine

The first appendectomy in the United States is performed in Davenport Iowa, by Dr. William Grant.

Medicine

Vaccines: Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) administers the first anti-rabies vaccine to a nine-year-old schoolboy.

Inventions

The first motorcycle is patented, built by Gottlief Daimler in Germany.

Inventions

Karl Benz (1824-1929) builds the world's first gasoline-powered vehicle. It has a traveling speed of nine miles per hour.

Inventions

The first modern bicycle is built. Bikes are a craze in America and Europe until the end of the century.

Inventions

The dictaphone, the electric transformer, the electric drill, and the thermos bottle are invented.

Inventions

African American Inventors: Women’s Firsts: Sarah E. Goode becomes the first African-American woman to receive a patent, for a bed that folds up into a cabinet.

Education

Children’s Books: Frances Hodgson Burnett (1849-1924), writes "Little Lord Fauntleroy."

Education

Children's Books: Robert Louis Stevenson (1850-1894) publishes "A Child’s Garden of Verses."

Education

The Bryn Mawr School for Girls in Baltimore, later joined by Bryn Mawr College for Women near Philadelphia, is founded.

Arts and Letters

"The Mikado," the comic operetta by William S. Gilbert (1836-1911) and Sir Arthur Sullivan (1842-1900), premieres at the Savoy Theatre, London.

Arts and Letters

American Theatre: Theatrical lighting with electricity is made available to theatrical productions.

Truman, Bess

Elizabeth Virginia Wallace Truman (1885-1982), wife of Harry S. Truman, is born in Independence, Missouri, on February 13.

Grant, Julia

Ulysses S. Grant (1822-1885), 18th President of the United States, dies July 23 in Mount McGregor, New York.

Economics

The first commercially operated electrical streetcar begins operation in Baltimore.

Economics

Railroad History: The Santa Fe Railroad is completed.

Daily Life

Special delivery mail service begins in the United States.

Daily Life

Newspapers: Elizabeth Cochrane Seaman (1867-1922), writing as Nelly Bly, becomes a reporter for the Pittsburgh Dispatch, reporting on poor working conditions in factories, problems of working girls, slums, divorce, and political corruption.

Daily Life

History of Toys: Crayola Crayons: Edwin Binney (1866-1934) and cousin, C. Harold Smith, begin the partnership of Binney & Smith in Peekskill, N.Y. Early products include red oxide pigments for painting red barns and carbon black for car tires.

Sports

Golf: Golf is introduced to the U.S. from Scotland by John M. Fox of Philadelphia.

Sports

A weight-lifting strongman is reported to have lifted 3,239 pounds with a harness.

Popular Culture

H. Rider Haggard (1856-1925) writes the adventure novel, "King Solomon’s Mines."

Popular Culture

"A Thousand and One Nights" is translated by Richard Burton (1821-1890); it includes the stories of “Sindbad the Sailor,” “Aladdin and the Magic Lamp,” and Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves.”

Religion

The U.S. Salvation Army is officially organized.

Religion

The Mormons divide into polygamous and monogamous factions.

Law

The Supreme Court rules that “persons” under the Fourteenth Amendment refers not only to individuals but also to corporations.

Government

The U.S. Forestry Service is established as part of the Dept. of Agriculture.

Government

A new Presidential Succession Act is passed providing the presidential succession to go to the Vice President, and then to Cabinet officers in the order that their departments were created.

War

Indian Wars: The last large-scale Indian war in the United States ends when American troops capture Apache chief Geronimo (1829-1909) after four years of warfare on the Mexican border.

Science

Fluorine is first produced by French chemist Henri Moissan (1852-1907).

Inventions

German motor pioneer Karl Benz (1844-1929) is granted a patent for the first successful gasoline-powered car.

Inventions

Josephine Cochrane (1839-1913) invents the dishwasher.

Inventions

Gottlieb Daimler (1834-1900) builds the world's first four-wheeled motor vehicle.

Inventions

John Pemberton (1814-1881) invents Coca Cola.

Technology

Hydroelectric plants are begun at Niagara Falls.

Technology

Wax disks are developed to use with the phonograph.

Technology

Sewing machines are made with electric motors.

Education

Libraries: The main library and the first four branches of the Enoch Pratt Free Library open in Baltimore, providing service to users of all races.

Education

Children’s Books: Randolph Caldecott (1846-1886), provides the illustrations for Hallam Tennyson's (1852-1928) curious hexameter version of "Jack and the Bean-stalk."

Arts and Letters

Literature: Robert Louis Stevenson (1850-1894) writes "Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde."

Ideas

Karl Marx’ (1818-1883) "Das Capital" is published in English.

Wilson, Ellen

Margaret Woodrow Wilson (1886-1944), daughter of Woodrow and Ellen Wilson, is born April 30.

Washington, Martha

Martha Washington (1731-1802) becomes the first woman to be portrayed on U.S. paper money.

Adams, Louisa

Charles Frances Adams (1807-1886), son of President John Quincy Adams and Louisa Adams, dies of a stroke on November 21 at the age of 79.

Arthur, Ellen

Chester A. Arthur (1830-1886), 21st President of the U.S., dies November 18 in New York, New York.

Cleveland, Frances

White House Wedding: Frances Folsom (1864-1947) marries U.S. President Grover Cleveland (1837-1906) in the White House.

Economics

Johannesburg is founded in South Africa. The gold-mining town will eventually mine the vast majority of the world's gold.

Economics

Catering to farmers far from large stores, Richard Sears (1863-1914) establishes a successful mail-order house in Minneapolis, first selling watches. He hires A.C. Roebuck (1864-1948) as a watch repairmen the next year in Chicago.

Economics

The first Coca-Cola is sold in Atlanta, advertised as a hangover remedy containing coca leaves and African kola nut extract.

Economics

Aluminum is first produced independently in the U.S. and in France.

Daily Life

The first Tournament of Roses is held in Pasadena, California.

Daily Life

The Statue of Liberty is dedicated in New York Harbor.

Daily Life

The History of Toys: The first BB gun is created. Made for children, it scares many parents because it is actually a working gun that can cause injury. The BB gun is a descendant of the cap gun, which was invented soon after the Civil War, when some shotgun manufacturers converted their factories to make toys. Penny pistols and other authentic looking toy guns also began to appear in the 1880s.

Reform

Settlement House Movement: The first settlement house is established in New York City.

Reform

Labor Movement: Chicago police officers shoot four strikers at a May 1st rally for the eight-hour day. The Knights of Labor holds a rally in Haymarket Square to protest the shootings; a bomb goes off, killing a policeman, and the police open fire on the crowd, killing many workers.

Reform

Labor Movement: Samuel Gompers (1850-1924), a cigar maker, founds the American Federation of Labor.

Reform

Women's Suffrage Movement: A bill granting women suffrage is passed by the Vermont legislature

Politics

Women's Firsts: Susanna Medora Salter (1820-1906) is elected the first U.S. woman mayor, in Argonia, Kansas.

Government

Congress creates Yellowstone National Park to be a refuge for buffalo and big game.

Government

Queen Victoria (1819-1901) celebrates her Golden Jubilee, marking 50 years on the British throne.

Government

Congress passes the Interstate Commerce Act, enabling the federal government to regulate railroad rates for the first time.

Government

Native Americans: The Dawes Act, which provides for the allotment of reservation land for individual Native American families, is passed by Congress.

War

Congress renews the U.S.-Hawaii Treaty, giving the U.S. exclusive rights to build a naval base at Pearl Harbor.

Medicine

Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) and Jules-Francois Jourbert (1834-1910) of France first demonstrate the antibiotic effect.

Inventions

Celluloid film is invented.

Inventions

Thomas Edison (1847-1931) invents the record player.

Technology

Paris and Brussels become the first two capital cities to be linked by telephone.

Education

Special Education: Twenty-year-old teacher Anne Sullivan (1866-1936) begins to teach blind-and-deaf child Helen Keller (1880-1968) at the request of Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922). Helen soon learns to communicate.

Education

Higher Education: Women's Colleges: The Smith College Observatory is founded.

Education

The Hatch Act appropriates federal money to study agriculture in any state with a Land Grant College.

Education

Higher Education: Libraries: Melville Dewey (1851-1931) establishes a State Library School in Albany, NY.

Arts and Letters

Opera: Verdi's (1813-1901) opera "Othello" is first performed in Milan, Italy.

Ideas

Polish philologist Lazurus Ludwig Zemenhof (1859-1917) invents Esperanto, hoping that an international language will forestall war and bring about better communication between the peoples of the world.

Wilson, Ellen

Jessie Woodrow Wilson Sayre (1887-1933), daughter of Woodrow and Ellen Wilson, is born August 28.

Roosevelt, Edith

Theodore "Ted" Roosevelt (Jr.) (1887-1944), son of Theodore and Edith Roosevelt, is born September 13.

Economics

The Pennsylvania Railroad runs an electrically lighted train between New York and Chicago.

Economics

The first successful electric trolley line is built in Richmond, VA.

Daily Life

Mail is delivered free in all cities with a population of at least 10,000.

Daily Life

Disasters: Terrible blizzards devastate America''s nothern plains. Families are found frozen to death in tar-paper shacks.

Daily Life

The History of Toys: The speaking doll, which had first been invented by Johann Maelzel in 1820, is improved when Thomas Edison combines his phonograph technology with a doll, allowing it to speak.

Sports

Softball: Softball is invented by George Hancock, a reporter for the Chicago Board of Trade.

Sports

Women in Sports: Ellen Hansell is crowned the first Women's Singles tennis champion at the US Open.

Sports

The first national women's tennis tournament is held at the Philadelphia Cricket Club.

Popular Culture

Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (1859-1930) publishes his first Sherlock Holmes mystery, "A Study in Scarlet."

Social Issues

Native Americans: The Dawes Act divides tribal land into individual allotted tracts, destroying tribal relations in an attempt to promote assimilation into white culture.

Reform

Nellie Bly (1867-1922) is hired by the New York World; her reporting lays the groundwork for the reform-minded muckracking journalists who come after her.

Reform

Women's Suffrage Movement: Utah repeals women's suffrage.

Law

Chief Justices: President Grover Cleveland (1837-1908) nominates Melville Weston Fuller (1833-1910) Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. He is confirmed by the Senate and serves for twenty-one years.

Politics

Political anthems: A Belgian woodcarver publishes the song "L'Internationale," with lyrics written during the Paris Commune uprising: "Arise, ye prisoners of starvation/ Arise, ye wretched of the earth...." The song is adopted by the Communist Party.

Politics

Belva Ann Lockwood (1830-1917) once more runs for the president for the Equal Rights Party; once again, she loses.

Politics

Benjamin Harrison (1831-1901) is elected as the 23rd President of the U.S., and Levi P. Morton (1824-1920) is elected as the nation's 22nd Vice President.

Government

Congress creates the Department of Labor.

Government

National Capitol: The public is first admitted to the Washington Monument.

Science

Weather fronts are first described; speculation considers thier relationship to storms.

Inventions

Artifical straws for drinking are patented.

Inventions

African American Inventors: Granville T. Woods (1856-1910) patents a system for overhead communication between trains and railroad stations.

Inventions

John Boyd Dunlop (1840-1921) takes out a patent for his pnuematic bicycle tire.

Inventions

Croation-American Nikola Tesla (1856-1943) invents an alternating-current electronic motor. He also develops early radio technology, but he gets little financial reward for his achievements.

Inventions

George Eastman (1854-1932) invents the Kodak camera.

Technology

Emile Berliner (1851-1929) gives the first demonstration of flat disc recording and reproduction before the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia.

Technology

Incubators are used for premature infants.

Technology

The first seismograph in the U.S. is installed in California.

Technology

Airplanes: Augustus Herring, New York, builds and tests a glider. It fails to fly.

Education

A women's annex to Columbia University is voted by the trustees.

Education

The National Geographic Society is established and publishes the first issue of its journal.

Education

Native Americans: Indian Education: Red Cloud invites the Jesuits to the reservation to establish a school for Lakota children in order to avoid sending children off the reservation.

Arts and Letters

Sculpture: Auguste Rodin (1840-1917) finshes his sculpture "The Thinker" in an enlarged size.

Arts and Letters

Rimsky-Korsakov (1844-1908) composes "Sheherazade."

Arts and Letters

John Phillips Sousa (1854-1932) writes "Semper Fidelis" for the Marines.

Ideas

American socialist Edward Bellamy (1850-1898) writes "Looking Backward," a utopian science-fiction novel depicting the United States in the year 2000.

Daily Life

Crime and Punishment: The body of Mary Ann "Polly" Nichols and Annie Chapman, the first two victims of murderer "Jack the Ripper," are found in London. Five more London prostitues are found disemboweled and a rumor circulates that Queen Victoria is responsible for their deaths to distract the public from scandals surrounding her son.

Daily Life

Crime and Punishment: New York state establishes electrocution for murderers sentenced to die.

Daily Life

Disasters: The famous "Blizzard of''88" occurs, lasting 36 hours and killing 400 people.

Sports

Softball: Softball moves outdoors, played on a diamond smaller than baseball''s, and called Indoor-Outdoor Baseball.

Sports

Women in Sports: Women join bicycling clubs in Chicago and tennis clubs in New York City.

Popular Culture

The world's first beauty contest takes place at Spa in Belgium. The first prize is awarded to Bertha Soucaret. an 18-year-old Creole from Guadeloupe.

Popular Culture

"Casey at the Bat" is recited for the first time in public.

Government

New State: Four states are admitted to the Union and include North and South Dakota as the 39th and 40th states, Montana as the 41st state, and Washington as the 42nd state.

Government

Benjamin Harrison (1831-1901) is inaugurated as the 23rd President of the U.S., and Levi P. Morton (1824-1920) is inaugurated as the nation's 22nd Vice President.

Government

Native Americans: Indian lands in Oklahoma are made available to white settlers.

Science

The origin of insulin in the pancreas is discovered.

Inventions

An inexpensive method of producing aluminum is patented by Charles Hall of Ohio.

Inventions

Joshua Pusey invents the matchbook.

Inventions

Sir James Dewar (1842-1923) and Sir Frederick Abel co-invent Cordite - a type of smokeless gunpowder.

Technology

Airplanes: Lawrence Hargrave (1850-1915), Australia, builds the first rotary airplane engine. It runs on compressed air and Hargrave uses it to power his model aircraft.

Technology

The first celluloid movie in the U.S. is made.

Technology

The Eiffel Tower is completed in Paris.

Education

Barnard College, a women's college affiliated with Columbia University and named after Columbia's president Frederick Barnard (1809-1889) is founded in New York.

Education

Catholic Univeristy opens in Washington D.C.

Education

Clinical training is established as part of medical education at John Hopkins University Medical School.

Education

Children’s Books: The Scottish-born poet, classicist, folklorist, and critic Andrew Lang (1844-1912) writes "The Blue Fairy Book."

Education

Women's Firsts: Marie Louise Baldwin becomes the first black school principal in Massachusetts; she supervises 12 white teahcers and more than 500 children, 98% of them white.

Arts and Letters

Painting: In a frenzy of activity, Vincent Van Gogh (1853-1890) finishes several famous paintings, including "The Starry Night," one of his last works.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Robert Louis Stevenson (1850-1894) writes "The Master of Ballantrae."

Hayes, Lucy

Lucy Webb Hayes (1831-1889) dies of a major stroke on June 25, while sewing as she watches a tennis match at Spiegel Grove, Ohio.

Harrison, Caroline

Caroline Harrison (1832-1892) tries to get Congress to appropiate funds to enlarge the White House; she fails, but does succeed in getting them to provide money for renovations.

Tyler, Julia

Julia Gardiner Tyler (1820-1889) dies of a stroke in Richmond, Virginia on July 10.

Harrison, Caroline

Electric lights are installed at the White House, but President Benjamin Harrison (1831-1901) and his wife, Caroline (1832-1892) refuse to touch the swithces, so the lights must be turned on by an employee at night, then turned off in the morning.

Taft, Helen

Robert Alphonso Taft (1889-1953), son of William Howard and Helen Taft, is born September 8.

Roosevelt, Edith

Kermit Roosevelt (1889-1943), son of Theodore and Edith Roosevelt, is born October 10.

Fillmore, Abigail

Millard Powers Fillmore (1828-1889), son of Millard and Abigail Fillmore, dies November 15.

Wilson, Ellen

Eleanor "Nellie" Randolph Wilson McAdoo (1889-1967), daughter of Woodrow and Ellen Wilson, is born October 16.

Economics

"The man who dies rich dies disgraced." writes steel baron and philanthropist Andrew Carnegie (1835-1919), displaying the contradictory attitudes towards wealth characteristic of the American Gilded Age.

Economics

Isaac Singer (1811-1875) markets an electric sewing machine.

Economics

The first anti-trust laws are passed in Kansas, North Caolina, Tennessee, and Michigan.

Daily Life

The first premixed self-rising pancake mix is marketed in the U.S.

Daily Life

Disasters: The Johnstown flood occurs in Pennsylvania.

Daily Life

Magazines: "Cosmopolitan Magazine" is founded.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The "Wall Street Journal" begins publishing.

Sports

Softball: George Hancock publishes the first set of Indoor-Outdoor Baseball (softball) rules.

Sports

Women in Sports: The first women's six-day bicycle race ends at Madison Square Garden in New York City.

Sports

Football: The first All-American Football Team is chosen by coach Walter Camp (1859-1925).

Sports

Boxing: The last bare-knuckled boxing championship occurs in Mississippi.

Popular Culture

Mark Twain (1835-1910) writes "A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court."

Popular Culture

Nelly Bly (1867-1922) circles the globe in 72 days, beating by 8 days the record of the fictional Phileas Fogg in Jules Verne's "Around the World in 80 Days."

Popular Culture

John Phillip Sousa (1854-1932) composes the "Washington Post March."

Social Issues

Native Americans: Land in Oklahoma, formerly in Indian hands, is opened to white settlers; about 50,000 settlers rushed in on the first day.

Reform

Settlement House Movement: Jane Addams (1860-1935) opens Hull House in Chigago. It''s part of the settlement-house mevement to help immigrant populations adjust to American life both materially and culturally.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: M. Carey (1857-1935) Thomas leads the group of feminists who secure admission of women students to the John Hopkins Medical School as a condition of a large gift to its endowment.

Government

The Sherman Anti-Trust Act bans every type of restraint of trade in the United States, but the anti-monopoly law initially accomplishes little.

Government

Yosemite and Sequoia National Parks are created by an act of Congress. The national park is one sign of a developing conservation movement in the United States.

Government

Presidents: Dwight David Eisenhower (1890-1969), 34th President of the United States, is born in Denison, Texas.

Government

New State: Idaho is admitted to the Union as the 43rd state and Wyoming is admitted as the 44th state in the Union.

Government

Women's Firsts: Alice Sanger becomes stenographer for President Harrison, the first woman employed in U.S. executive offices.

War

Indian Wars: An army of about 500 United States soldiers massacres 300 Sioux Indian men, women, and children in a South Dakota encampment. The Battle of Wounded Knee is the final violent struggle between Native Americans and whites in the United States.

Medicine

Emil von Behring (1854-1917), in Germany, develops a diphtheria antitoxin.

Medicine

For the first time, rubber gloves are used in surgery at Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore.

Medicine

Dr. Ida Gray (1868-1907) becomes the first black woman dentist in the U.S.

Medicine

The standardization of diphtheria antitoxin establishes the field of immunology.

Inventions

Pans made from aluminum are invented in Ohio.

Technology

Airplanes: Clement Ader (1841-1926), France, builds a steam-powered, propeller-driven bat-wing airplane, the Eole. It rises about 8 inches in the air and flies 165 feet. It is the first manned aircraft to take off from level ground.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Emily Dickinson's (1830-1886) first volume of poetry is published posthumously.

Arts and Letters

Drama: Henrik Ibsen (1828-1906) writes "Hedda Gabler."

Arts and Letters

Literature: Oscar Wilde (1854-1900) writes "The Picture of Dorian Gray."

Ideas

William James (1842-1910) publishes "The Principles of Psychology."

Harrison, Caroline

Caroline Harrison (1832-1892) helps raise funds for the Johns Hopkins Medical School, on the condition that they admit women.

Harrison, Caroline

With the help of Caroline Harrison, the Daughters of the American Revolution is founded in Washington, D.C.

Economics

Ladybugs are imported to control insects threatening California's citrus trees.

Economics

Anti-trust laws are passed by 11 more states.

Economics

Census: According to the 1890 census, the total population in the United States is nearly 63 million people.

Daily Life

Crime and Punishment: Convicted murderer William Kemmler (1861-1890) becomes the first person to be executed in the electric chair as he is put to death at Auburn State Prison in New York.

Daily Life

German drug manufacturer Eugene Schieffelin introduces starlings to New York City. Today, starlings are one of the most common urban bird species in the United States.

Daily Life

Fashion: American women begin to wear knickerbockers for bicyclce riding.

Daily Life

Newspapers: Modern newspaper features include bold "banner" headlines, extensive use of illustrations, "funny pages," plus expanded coverage of organized sporting events.

Daily Life

The General Federation of Women's Clubs is founded.

Sports

Women in Sports: Baseball: The Bloomer Girls baseball era lasted from the 1890s until 1934. Hundreds of teams -- All Star Ranger Girls, Philadelphia Bobbies, New York Bloomer Girls, Baltimore Black Sox Colored Girls -- offered employment, travel, and adventure for young women who could hit, field, slide, or catch.

Popular Culture

The first moving picture shows (movies) are shown in New York City.

Social Issues

Child Labor: Almost 23,000 children work in the factories of 13 southern states.

Social Issues

Native Americans: Sitting Bull (Tatanka Iyotake) (1831-1890), the chief who led the Sioux Indians at the Battle of Little Big Horn against Lt. Col. George Custer (1839-1876), is killed. He dies while resisting arrest by Indian police.

Reform

Civil Rights Movement: Mississippi institutes a poll tax, literacy tests, and other measures to prevent blacks from voting. This marks the end of the political freedoms freed slaves had enjoyed during federal Reconstruction.

Reform

Labor Movement: United Mine workers of America is founded.

Reform

Poverty: New York photographer and social critic Jacob Riis (1849-1914) publishes "How the Other Half Lives," documenting the everyday poverty in the slums of New York City; the book is instrumental in forging a coalition of reform in the years of the Progressive Movement.

Law

The newly established U.S. Circuit Courts of Appeals ease the load of the Supreme Court.

Politics

Exiles from the Ottoman Empire, called Young Turks, meet in Geneva. The Young Turks later become the architects of Turkey's nationalist movement.

Government

Hawaii proclaims as its Queen Liliukalani (1838-1917), renowned for her song "Aloha Oe."

Government

The Forest Reserve Act enables the President to reserve public lands for national parks.

Medicine

The American Psychological Association is founded.

Medicine

Chicago's Provident Hospital becomes the first interracial hospital in the United States.

Inventions

American, W.L. Judson invents the zipper, though it is not widely used until 1919.

Technology

The submarine, "Monarch," lays telephone cable along the English Channel bed to prepare for the first telephone links across the Channel.

Technology

Wireless telegraphy begins.

Technology

Airplanes: Otto Lilienthal (1848-1896) begins to test winged gliders, made from cloth stretched over willow frameworks.

Technology

Airplanes: Samuel Langley, Virginia, begins to experiment with steam-powered model aircraft he calls Aerodromes. The first five are failures.

Education

Higher Education: The University of Chicago is founded. The new Midwestern university, which sets out to lure academic stars away from the Northeast, gets its intial endowment from oil magnate John D. Rockefeller (1839-1937).

Arts and Letters

Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840-1893) conducts part of the first concert in brand new Carnegie Hall.

Arts and Letters

Literature: English author Thomas Hardy's (1840-1928) classic, "Tess of the d'Urbervilles," is published.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Emily Dickinson's 1830-1886) "Poems: Second" is published in 1891 and runs to five editions by 1893.

Taft, Helen

Helen Herron Taft Manning (1891-1987), daughter of William Howard and Helen Taft, is born August 1.

Roosevelt, Edith

Ethel Carow Roosevelt Derby (1891-1977), daughter of Theodore and Edith Roosevelt, is born August 13.

Cleveland, Frances

Ruth Cleveland "Baby Ruth" (1891-1904), daughter of Grover and Frances Cleveland, is born.

Harrison, Caroline

Caroline Harrison (1832-1892) designs the corn-and-flower pattern of the White House china used during her husband's administration.

Harrison, Caroline

Caroline Harrison (1832-1892) gives the first public address ever made by an incumbant First Lady on October 21.

Polk, Sarah

Sarah Childress Polk (1803-1891) dies at Polk Place in Nashville at the age of eighty-seven.

Economics

The United States' first full-service advertising agency opens in New York City.

Sports

The first marathon race is run in Massachusetts; it is 26 miles, 385 yards, the same distance run in 490 B.C. to carry the new of an Anthenian victory over the Persians.

Popular Culture

Arthur Conan Doyle (1859-1930) publishes "The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes."

Popular Culture

Madison Square Garden is designed by Stanford White (1853-1906).

Popular Culture

Henri Toulouse-Lautrec (1864-1901) paints his first music hall posters.

Religion

Ann Spencer becomes an ordained minister of the Unitarian Church, serving in Providence, RI.

Social Issues

Native Americans: More Indian Territory land is opned to the public for settlement.

Politics

Grover Cleveland (1837-1906) is re-elected as the 24th President of the United States, and Adlai Stevenson (1835-1914) is elected the nation's 23rd Vice President.

Politics

Third Parties: Angry Southern and Western farmers found the Populist Party at a convention in Omaha, Nebraska. Their candidate for President, James Weaver (1833-1912) wins 9 percent of the vote and receives 22 electoral votes.

Government

Immigration: The Chinese Exclusion Act is extended for ten years.

Medicine

American School of Osteopathy opens in Missouri. The practice spreads rapidly and in most states is granted legal recognition identical with that of allopathic medicine.

Inventions

Gottlieb Daimler (1834-1900) invents the carburetor.

Inventions

The Ferris Wheel is invented by George W.G. Ferris (1859-1896) for the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago.

Inventions

The first escalator, The Reno Inclined Elevator, is patented by Jesse W. Reno (b. 1861) of New York.

Technology

The first electric car is driven from Des Moines, Iowa to Chicago, Illinois.

Technology

The first automated telephone swithcboard is introduced

Technology

Artifical textile fibers, later named Rayon, are improved.

Technology

Airplanes: Wilbur (1867-1912) and Orville Wright (1871-1948) purchase "safety bicycles" and open a sales and repair shop. They give a bicycle to their friend, Paul Laurence Dunbar (1872-1906).

Education

Public Education: The National Education Association establishes what becomes known as the Committee of Ten to study the function of the American high school.

Education

The International Kindergarten Union, an organization of kindergarten teachers, is founded in the U.S.

Arts and Letters

Tchaikovsky's (1840-1893) "The Nutcracker" ballet is performed in St. Petersburg.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Edna St. Vincent Millay (1892-1950) publsihes her first collection of poetry.

Ideas

Charolette Perkins Gilman (1860-1935) publishes her short story, "The Yellow Wallpaper."

Harrison, Caroline

Caroline Harrison (1832-1892) dies of tuberculosis in the White House on October 25, at the age of 60.

Economics

The Ohio Supreme Court outlaws John D. Rockefeller's (1839-1937) Standard Oil Trust under the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. But Rockafeller simply re-incorporates in New Jersey, where corporations are allowed to hold other companies, and keeps his company under the new name Standard Oil of New Jersey.

Economics

Boll weevils invade from Mexico and infest most of the South's cotton crop.

Daily Life

Melba toast is named for opera singer Nellie Melba (1861-1931).

Daily Life

Crime and Punishment: Lizzie Borden (1860-1927) is acquitted in the ax murder of her parents; it is one of America''s first sensational trials.

Daily Life

Fire seriously damages New York's original Metropolitan Opera House, located at Broadway and 39th Street.

Daily Life

Crime and Punishment: The Dalton Gang, notorious for its train robberies, is practically wiped out while attempting to rob a pair of banks in Coffeyville, Kansas.

Sports

Women in Sports: The journal Physical Education (a publication of the YMCA) devote an issue to women, saying that women need physical strength and endurance and dismis the popular idea that women are too weak to exercise.

Sports

Boxing: "Gentleman Jim" Corbett (1866-1933) wins the heavyweight boxing title by defeating John L. Sullivan (1858-1918); the fight is the first under the new Marquis of Queensbury rules.

Popular Culture

Rudyard Kipling (1865-1936) publishes "Barrack-Room Ballads," that include "Gunga Din" and "The Road to Mandalay."

Social Issues

Immigration: Ellis Island replaces Castle Garden as the receiving place immigrants to the United States.

Reform

Temperance Movement: Carrie Nation (1846-1911) begins her violent fight for temperance legislation, often taking an ax to saloons.

Reform

Labor Movement: Steelwokers at one of Andrew Carnegie's (1835-1919) mills in Homestead, Pennsylvania, go on strike because manager, Henry Clay Frick (1849-1919), refuses to grant them a union contract. The workers lose after five months in one of the owrst defeats the American Labor movement has ever suffered.

Reform

Environmental Movement: The Sierra Club organizes to protect America's enviroment.

Law

Immigration: The Chinese Exclusion Act is declared constitutional by the Supreme Court.

Government

Hawaii is proclaimed a republic; it is annexed by treaty to the U.S. in February; in March, the treaty is withdrawn.

Government

France acquires a protectorate over Laos and governs it as part of Indochina.

Government

The rank of Ambassador is created by Congress under the Diplomatic Appropriations Act.

Government

A second Irish Home Rule bill is passed by the British House of Commons but rejected in the House of Lords.

Government

Congress defeats an attempt to switch the U.S. to the metric system.

Government

Stamps: The first U.S. commemorative stamps are issued. They depict scenes of Columbus' voyage to America.

Government

Grover Cleveland (1837-1906) is inaugurated as the 24th President of the United States, and Adlai Stevenson (1835-1914) is inaugurated the nation's 23rd Vice President.

Science

The "Journal of Geology" is founded by Thomas C. Chamberlin (1843-1928).

Science

The length of the meter is standardized using a measurement based on the wavelength of red cadmium light.

Science

A forerunner to the theory of relativity is set forth by physicists George Fitzgerald, Jr. (1851-1901) and Hendrik Lorenz (1853-1928), stating that objects get smaller as they approach the speed of light.

Inventions

Henry Ford (1863-1947) builds his first successful gasoline engine.

Inventions

Chemist Leo H. Baekeland (1863-1944) develops "Velox," the first photographic paper sensitive enough to be printed by artificial light.

Inventions

Karl Benz (1844-1929) builds a four-wheel car.

Technology

Chlorine is first used to treat sewage in Brewster, New York.

Technology

Airplanes: Hiram Maxim (1840- 1916) predicts that even "under the most unfavorable circumstances, aerial navigation will be an accomplished fact inside of ten years."

Technology

Airplanes: Lawrence Hargrave (1850-1915), Australia, invents the box kite. Because it is remarkably stable and generates large amounts of lift, it creates a sensation in aeronautical circles. It's general form influences all early airplane designers.

Education

Public Education (1893-1913): Size of school boards in the country's 28 biggest cities is cut in half. Most local district (or "ward") based positions are eliminated, in favor of city-wide elections. This means that local immigrant communities lose control of their local schools. Makeup of school boards changes from small local businessmen and some wage earners to professionals (like doctors and lawyers), big businessmen and other members of the richest classes.

Education

Women's Colleges: Mt. Holyoke Seminary becomes Mt. Holyoke College.

Education

Lillian Wald (1867-1940) organizes Home nursing classes for immigrant families in New York City.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Oscar Wilde (1854-1900) writes "A Woman of No Importance."

Arts and Letters

Literature: Henry Blake Fuller (1857-1929) publishes "The Cliff-Dwellers," considered to be the first American novel about the city.

Arts and Letters

Opera: Englebert Humperdinck composes the opera "Hansel and Gretal."

Arts and Letters

Italian actress Eleanora Duse (1858-1924) makes her debut in New York City.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Stephen Crane's (1871-1900) first novel, "Maggie: A Girl Of The Streets," (1893) is a milestone in the development of literary naturalism.

Arts and Letters

Willa Catha (1873-1947) becomes a regular contributor to the "Nebraska State Journal"; she begins to review plays and write a Sunday column. She is also managing editor of "The Hesperian" and contributes numerous pieces.

Ideas

Matilda Gage publishes her classic feminist analysis, "Women, Church, and State."

Ideas

"The Psychic Mechanism of Hysterical Phenomena" is published by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and Josef Breuer (1842-1925), laying the foundations of psychoanalysis.

Ideas

Psychologist Milicent Washburn Shinn (1858-1940) publishes "Notes on the Development of a Child."

Hayes, Lucy

Rutherford B. Hayes (1822-1893), 19th President of the U.S., dies January 17 at Spiegel Grove in Fremont, Ohio.

Cleveland, Frances

Esther Cleveland (Bosanquet) (1893-1980), daughter of Grover and Frances Cleveland, is born September 9.

Economics

Railroad History: On May 10th locomotive #999 of the New York Central & Hudson River RR hauled four heavy Wagner cars of the Empire State Express down a 0.28% grade at record-braking speed.

Economics

A financial panic in the U.S. is touched off because gold reserves fall below $90 million.

Economics

L C. Tiffany (1838-1933) develops fervile glass, an elegant type of stained glass with which he makes screens, lampshades, and other items.

Discovery

The World Columbian Exposition opens in Chicago and celebrates the 400th anniversary of the discovery of America.

Sports

Boxing: The longest recorded boxing match occurs in New Orleans between Andy Bowen and Jack Burk; it lasts for 110 rounds, 7 hours, 4 minutes.

Sports

A relay race is first run at the University of Pennsylvania.

Sports

Ice hockey is introduced from Canada at Yale and Johns Hopkins Universities.

Sports

The first cross-country skiing competition for women takes place in Sweden.

Sports

Baseball: The stories differ, but some time during these years baseball meets the hot dog and an American classic is born.

Popular Culture

The words to "America the Beautiful" are written by Katherine Lee Bates (1859-1929).

Popular Culture

Having killed him off in "The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes," Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (1859-1930) is subjected to major public outrage and demands that the detective be brought back to life.

Popular Culture

Calamity Jane (1848-1903) tours Europe and the U.S. in Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show.

Popular Culture

Mildred Hill (1859-1916), from Kentucky, publsihes her song, "Good Morning to All"; Robert H. Coleman adds a second verse beginning, "Happy Birthday to You."

Social Issues

Native Americans: Cherokee land between Kansas and Oklahoma is declared open to settlement.

Reform

Settlement House Movement: Lillian Wald (1867-1940) and Mary Brewster found the Henry Street Settlement on the lower east side of New York City, providing, among other things, visiting nursing to poor families.

Reform

Women's Suffrage Movement: Colorado adopts suffrage for women.

Reform

Women's Suffrage Movement: New Zealand adopts suffrage for women.

Reform

The first World Congress of Women is held in Chicago.

Politics

French army Captain Alfred Dreyfus (1859-1935) is arrested for treason; he is convicted "in camera," and deported to Devil's Island, French Guiana. This case, widely known as the "Dreyfus Affair," is, in part, an example of anti-Semitic persecution.

Government

Nicholas II (1868-1918) becomes the last czar of Russia.

Government

Congress passes the first graduated income tax law as part of the Wilson-Gorman Tariff Act, which lowers tariffs.

War

The Sino-Japanese War over control of Korea begins.

Science

Florence Bascom (1862-1945) becomes the first woman elected as a fellow of the Geological Society of America.

Science

Lord Rayleigh (1842-1919) and William Ramsay (1852-1916) discover argon.

Science

The Lowell Observatory is built in Flagstaff, Arizona.

Medicine

Alexander Yersin (1863-1943) and Kitasato Shibasaburo (1853-1931) independently discover the plague bacillus.

Medicine

The Boston Board of Health begins medical examination of school-children.

Medicine

The first effective antitoxin against diphtheria is developed by Anna Wessel Williams (1863-1954).

Inventions

Thomas Edison (1847-1931) demonstrates the kinetoscope, a device for peep-show viewing using photographs that flip rapidly in sequence.

Inventions

Louis Lumiere (1864-1948) invents the cinematograph.

Inventions

A small hand-powered submarine is launched by inventor Simon Lake (1866-1945).

Inventions

Rudolf Diesel (1858-1913) invents the diesel engine.

Technology

Airplanes: Otto Lilienthal (1848-1896) is regularly making glides of over 1000 feet. He begins to outfit his gliders with a "rebound bow" at the front to absorb the shock of a rough landing. It saves his life on at least one occasion.

Education

Children’s Books: Rudyard Kipling (1865-1936) uses his own upbringing in India for his Mowgli stories in "The Jungle Book."

Education

Libraries: North Carolina A&T State University's Bluford Library is founded in Greemsboro.

Education

Women's Colleges: Radcliffe College recieves its formal charter as a women's college associated with Harvard University; Elizabeth Agassiz (1822-1907) becomes its first president.

Education

Women's Colleges: Martha Carey Thomas (1857-1935) becomes president of Bryn Mawr College.

Education

Ellen Gates Scott, co-founder of Hull House, founds the Chicago Public School Art Society in an effort to keep great art before the eyes of slum dwellers.

Arts and Letters

Drama: Bernard Shaw (1856-1950) writes "Arms and the Man."

Arts and Letters

Jean Silbelius (1865-1957) composes "Finlandia."

Arts and Letters

Debussy (1862-1918) composes "The Afternoon of a Fawn" (L'Apres-midi d'un faune).

Arts and Letters

Literature: "The Prisoner of Zenda" is published by English author Anthony Hope (1863-1933).

Arts and Letters

Literature: The character of the hypnotist Svengali is introduced in the novel, "Trilby," by George du Maurier (1834-1896).

Arts and Letters

Emily Dickinson's (1830-1886) two volumes of letters, heavily edited and selected, are published.

Roosevelt, Edith

Archibald "Archie" Bulloch Roosevelt (1894-1981), son of Theodore and Edith Roosevelt, is born April 9.

Daily Life

Newspapers: Comics first appear in Sunday newspapers.

Sports

Horse Racing: The New York Jockey Club is founded.

Sports

A committee is established to organize the modern Olympic Games.

Sports

Golf: The United States Golf Association is founded.

Sports

Women in Sports: Golf: The first Australian women''s national golf championship is held.

Popular Culture

Mark Twain (1835-1910) publishes "Tom Sawyer Abroad" and "The Tragedy of Pudd'nhead Wilson."

Religion

The World's Young Women's Christian Association (WYWCA) is founded in Geneva, Switzerland.

Religion

Children’s Books: Talbot Baines Reed (1852-1893) bibliographer whose twenty-plus books include "The Master of the Shell," written for the Religious Tract Society.

Reform

Labor Movement: In a year of major labor unrest, Eugene V. Debs (1855-1926) leads the American Railway Union in support of Pullman strikers; railroad traffic out of Chicago comes to a halt; federal troops break the strike; Debs is jailed.

Reform

A band of unemployed men led by Jacob S. Coxey (1854-1951) engages in a march on Washington to petition Congress for public works projects to help the jobless. Coxey is arrested for trespassing and the "army" disbands.

Law

In "Pollack v. Farmers Loan and Trust Company," the Supreme Court finds the income tax unconstitutional.

Law

Labor Movement: The Supreme Court upholds the use of the injuction as a strike-breaking device.

Government

The British South Africa Company territory south of Zambezi becomes Rhodesia.

War

The Sino-Japanese War ends with the signing of the Treaty of Shimonoseki.

Science

The Yerkes Observatory is established at Lake Geneva, Wisconsin.

Science

Wilhelm Rontgen (1845-1923) discovers x-rays.

Medicine

A group of black doctors form the National Medical Association, asserting that their interests are not being met by the American Medical Association.

Medicine

Alexander Yersin (1863-1943) develops a serum to fight bubonic plague.

Medicine

Women's Firsts: Lillian Murray (1871-1960) becomes Britain's first woman dentist.

Medicine

Elizabeth Blackwell (1821-1910) publishes "Pioneer Work in Opening the Medical Profession to Women."

Inventions

The safety razor is invented by King C. Gillette (1855-1932).

Inventions

Italian physcist Guglielmo Marconi (1874-1937) invents a wireless telegraph system.

Technology

The Lumiere brothers (Auguste (1862-1954) and Louis (1864-1948) are granted a patent in France for the earliest movie projectors. In March, thry first demonstrate motion pictures using celluloid film in Paris.

Technology

Pneumatic (air-filled) tires are produced by the Hartford Rubber Works in Connecticut.

Technology

Airplanes: Percy Pilcher, Scotland, builds a glider, the Bat. Visits Otto Lilienthal and asks for advice. Makes suggested improvement and flies the Bat. Builds two more gliders, the Beetle and the Gull, making improvements on each one.

Education

Libraries: The Astor and Lenox libraries and the Tilden Trust merge to form the New York Public Library.

Education

Troy Female Seminary becomes the Emma Willard School.

Education

Higher Education: The London School of Economics and Political Science is founded.

Arts and Letters

Painting: The Art Nouveau style of painting is fashionable.

Arts and Letters

Dance: The first complete performance of the ballet, "Swan Lake," by Tchaikosvky (1840-1893) occurs in St. Petersburg.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Stephen Crane (1871-1900) publishes "The Red Badge of Courage."

Arts and Letters

Painting: Impressionist art is introduced to the U.S.

Arts and Letters

Drama: Oscar Wilde (1854-1900) writes the play "The Importance of Being Earnest."

Ideas

Thomas Masaryk (1850-1937) publishes "The Czech Question."

Ideas

Volume 3 of "Das Kapital" by Karl Marx (1818-1883) is published posthumously.

Cleveland, Frances

Marion Cleveland (Dell Amen) (1895-1977), daughter of Grover and Frances Cleveland, is born July 7.

Economics

Railroad History: The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad begins using electric locomotives.

Economics

The commercial production of pasteurized milk is begun by Lewis B. Halsey (1851-1919).

Economics

Sears Roebuck Company opens a mail-order business.

Economics

Women''s Firsts: Florence Kelley (1859-1932) becomes the first woman to head a state factory-inspection service.

Daily Life

Magazines: "Field and Stream" magazine begins publication.

Daily Life

The first national organization of Black women's clubs, the National Federation of Afro-American Women, is organized by Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin, Mary Church Terrell, Fannie Barrier Williams, and Margaret Washington.

Sports

Women in Sports: Annie Smith Peck is the first woman to reach the peak of the Matterhorn. She climbed in a pair of knickerbockers, causing a sensation with the press. She helps to found the American Alpine Club in 1902.

Sports

The American Bowling Congress is established to govern the game.

Sports

Football: The first professional football game is played in the U.S. at Latrobe, Pennsylvania.

Sports

Golf: The first U.S. Open Golf Championship is held.

Popular Culture

Katharine Lee Bates(1859-1929) publishes "America the Beautiful."

Popular Culture

H.G. Wells (1866-1946) writes "The Time Machine."

Popular Culture

The first public film show occurs in Paris at the Hotel Scribe.

Religion

The National Baptist Convention if the U.S.A. is founded by the merger of Negro Baptist groups.

Religion

Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815-1902) publishes "The Woman's Bible."

Reform

Settlement House Movement: Lillian D. Wald(1867-1940) founds a nurses' settlement on Henry Street in New York City.

Reform

Civil Rights Movement: Ida B. Wells (1862-1931) publishes her famous work on lynching, "Red Record," the first comprehensive work on the topic supported by statistical data.

Reform

Settlement House Movement: Jane Addams (1860-1935) publishes "Hull House Maps and Papers," a detailed study of conditions of Chicago immigrants served by the settlement house.

Law

Education: In "Plessy v. Ferguson," the Supreme Court rules that "separate but equal" facilities for whites and blacks are constitutional; the ruling marks the beginning of the "Jim Crow" era, legalizing segregation and forming the central legal basis for school segregation in the United States.

Politics

Third Parties: William Jennings Bryan (1860-1925) gives his "Cross of Gold" speech at the Democratic National Convention in Chicago; he is nominated for president by both the free-silver democrats and the Populist Party.

Politics

William McKinley (1843-1901) is elected the 25th President of the United States, and Garrett A. Hobart (1844-1899) is elected the nation's 24th Vice President.

Government

Rural free mail delivery is established.

Government

New State: Utah becomes the 45th state in the Union; it reinstates women's suffrage, which was lost in 1887.

Government

Stamps: Rural free delivery beings bringing mail to homes in the country.

Science

Ohio physicist Wallace Sabine (1868-1919), develops a reverberation equation that becomes the basics of acoustics.

Science

Swedish anatomist, Magnus G. Retzius (1842-1919), publishes "The Human Brain," the most complete work in his topic today.

Science

Helium is discovered by William Ramsey (1852-1916).

Science

Radioactivity is discovered by Frech physicist A. H. Becquerel (1852-1908).

Science

Lord Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937), English chemist, discovers alpha and beta waves.

Inventions

Thomas Edison (1847-1931) invents the flouroscope and the flourescent lamp.

Inventions

American, H. O'Sullivan invents the rubber heel.

Technology

Airplanes: Percy Pilcher builds a much-improved glider, the Hawk, and glides up to 750 feet. He plans a powered version

Technology

H.L. Smith takes the first X-ray photograph, a hand with a bullet in it.

Education

Public Education: Plessy v. Ferguson decision. The U.S. Supreme Court rules that the state of Louisiana has the right to require "separate but equal" railroad cars for Blacks and whites. This decision means that the federal government officially recognizes segregation as legal. One result is that southern states pass laws requiring racial segregation in public schools.

Arts and Letters

German opera singer Lilli Lehmann (1848-1929) debuts in Prague, Danzig, and Leipzig, and receieves a lifetime appointment at the Royal Opera in Berlin.

Arts and Letters

Opera: "La Boheme," by Giacomo Puccini (1858-1924), is performed in Turin.

Arts and Letters

The last of the Gilbert and Sullivan operettas, "The Grand Duke," is performed in London.

Arts and Letters

John Phillips Sousa (1854-1932) composes "The Stars and Stripes Forever."

Arts and Letters

Drama: Anton Chekhov (1860-1904) write the play "The Seagull."

Arts and Letters

Edward Elgar (1857-1934) composes "Enigma Variations."

Arts and Letters

Literature: Henryk Sienkiewicz (1846-1916) publishes "Quo Vadis."

Ideas

The Nobel Prizes are established in physics, phisiology and medicine, chemistry, literature, and peace.

Tyler, Letitia

John Tyler, Jr. (1819-1896), son of John and Letitia Tyler, dies January 26.

Economics

Successful off-shore oil wells are drilled near Santa Barbara, California.

Economics

A hydroelectric plant opens in Niagara Falls.

Economics

The Wright brothers begin to manufacture their own bicycles.

Daily Life

"Book" matches become popular.

Daily Life

Newspapers: Harriet Hubbard Ayer(1849-1903) joins the New York World as a beauty columnist, becoming the first coordinator of a "women's page."

Daily Life

Fanny Farmer (1857-1915), principal of the Boston Cooking School, publsihes "The Boston Cooking School Cookbook," which introduces precise measurement and instructions to cooking; revisions of the cookbook, which is renamed "The Fanny Farmer Cookbook," make the cook book a standard throughout the 20th century.

Daily Life

The tootsie roll is introduced by Leo Hirschfield.

Daily Life

The History of Toys: A westernized version of the Indian game Parcheesi is introduced in England under the name Ludo.

Sports

Women in Sports: Susan B. Anthony says that "the bicycle has done more for the emancipation of women than anything else in the world."

Sports

Women in Sports: Basketball: Women play in their first intercollegiate basketball game, between the University of California at Berkeley and Stanford University; no males were allowed at the Berkeley game.

Sports

The first modern Olympic Games open in Athens, Greece.

Sports

The first U.S. hockey league, The Amateur Hockey League, is established in New York City.

Sports

Athlete James B. Connolly (1870-1916) becomes the first Olympic champion in 1500 years at the revival of the Olympic Games in Athens.

Popular Culture

The first close-up, prolonged embrace on the movie screen, The John Rice-May Irwin Kiss, scandalizes audiences across the country.

Popular Culture

Motion pictures are introduced into vaudeville shows.

Popular Culture

Women’s Firsts: Alice Guy Blaché (1873-1968), the first American woman film director, shoots the first of her more than 300 films, a short feature called La Fee aux Choux (The Cabbage Fairy).

Religion

The Mormon Church abandons polygamy, the practice of a man having more than one wife.

Religion

Former baseball player Billy Sunday (1862-1935) begins a career of evangelism, preaching at 300 revivals and to 100 million people before his death in 1935.

Social Issues

Poverty: The Volunteers of America is founded by Salvation army leader Maud Charlesworth Booth (1865-1948).

Reform

Labor Movement: The Union for Industrial Progress is organized by Mary Morton Kehew (1859-1918) and Mary Kenney (O'Sullivan)(1864-1943) to support bookbinders, laundry and tobacco workers, and women clothing workers.

Law

The Supreme Court supports the Sherman Antitrust Act.

Law

Women's Firsts: Sophonisba Preston Breckeridge (1866-1948) is the first women to be admitted to the Kentucky bar.

Politics

Mathieu Dreyfus (1857-1930) discovers that the document on which his brother, Alfred (1859-1935), was convicted was actually written by Major M. C. Esterhazy.

Government

William A. McKinley (1843-1901) is inaugurated as the 25th President of the United States, and Garrett A. Hobart (1844-1899) is inaugurated as the nation's 24th Vice President.

Government

Immigration: President McKinley (1843-1901) vetoes a bill that would require literacy tests for immigrants.

Government

This year marks Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee, marking her 60th year as Queen of Great Britain.

Science

Marie Curie (1867-1934) publsihes her first paper, on the magnetism of tempered steel, the year her daughter, Irene, was born.

Science

Scottish physicist Joseph J. Thompson (1884-1956) discovers the electron.

Science

Beatrix Potter (1866-1943), who later achieved prominance as a children's author, discovers that lichen is not a kind of plant, but a symbiotic relationship between algae and fungi; her discovery would not be accepted for another decade

Medicine

The malaria bacillus is discovered by Ronald Ross (1857-1932).

Medicine

The bacterium that causes dysentery is discovered by Japanese bacteriologist Shiga Kiyoshi (1871-1951).

Medicine

Dutch physician Chistiaan Ejikman (1858-1930) determines that the disease beriberi is caused by dietary deficiency.

Medicine

America's first hospital for crippled children opens in St. Paul, Minnesota.

Inventions

The oscilloscope is invented by Karl F. Braun (1850-1918).

Inventions

African American Inventors: Andrew Beard (c.1849-1910), patents an improvement to railroad car couplers, called the Jenny Coupler, which did the dangerous job of hooking railroad cars together.

Technology

The first full-length x-ray of a human body is produced by William Morton (1819-1868).

Technology

The world's largest telescope (40 inch lens) is installed at Yerkes Observatory.

Technology

A 36-foot long gasoline powered submarine, the Argonaut II, with wheels for rolling along the ocean floor, in launched.

Technology

The first practical subway is completed in Boston.

Education

Education of Women: John Hopkins University's medical school becomes the first major American medical school to admit women, after recieving a large contribution from Mary Elizabeth Garrett (1854-1915) on the condition that it do so.

Education

The National Congress of Mothers, forerunner of the National Parent-Teacher Association, is founded by Pheobe Apperson Hearst (1842-1919) and Alice McLellan Birney (1858-1907).

Arts and Letters

Literature: Rudyard Kipling (1865-1936) writes "Captain's Courageous."

Arts and Letters

Drama: Edmund Rostand (1868-1918) writes and produces the play "Cyrano de Bergerac" in France.

Arts and Letters

Drama: Bernard Shaw (1856-1950) writes the play, "Candide."

Arts and Letters

Women’s Firsts: H.H.A. Beach's (1867-1944) "Gaelic Symphony" is the first symphony by a woman performed in the United States, and possibly the world.

Ideas

Havelock Ellis (1859-1939) writes "Studies in the Psychology of Sex."

Ideas

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) defines the "Oedipus Complex" and suggests that dreams play an important psychological role.

Cleveland, Frances

Richard Folsom "Dick" Cleveland (1897-1974), son of Grover and Frances Cleveland, is born October 28.

Harrison, Caroline

Elizabeth Harrison Walker (1897-1955), daughter of Benjamin and Caroline Harrison, is born February 21.

Roosevelt, Edith

Quentin Roosevelt (1897-1918), son of Theodore and Edith Roosevelt, is born November 19.

Taft, Helen

Charles Phelps Taft (1897-1983), son of William Howard and Helen Taft, is born September 20.

Economics

American Money: A National Monetary Commission meets at Indianapolis and endorses the existing gold standard.

Economics

Marconi (1874-1937) achieves radio tansmission over long distances and establishes the Wireless Telegraph Company.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The first American comic strip, the "Katzenjammer Kids," is begun by Rudolph Dirks (1877-1968).

Daily Life

Sophie Levy Lyons (1848-1924) adandons a successful acreer as a famous international bank robber to become the first society columnist in the U.S.

Daily Life

Novelist Willa Cather (1873-1947) begins her career as a newspaperwoman in Pittsburgh

Sports

Softball: Softball becomes international with the creation of a league in Toronto, and the publication of the Indoor Baseball Guide.

Sports

Women in Sports: The first Women's French Tennis Championship is held.

Sports

Boxing: In the first boxing match to be photographed with a moving picture camera, Corbett (1866-1933) is defeated by Bob Fitzsimmons (1863-1917) in a 14-round bout.

Popular Culture

Bram Stroker, Jr. (1847-1912) publishes "Dracula."

Reform

Abolition Movement: Harriet Tubman (c.1820-1913) wins a $20 per month pension for her Civil War service to the Union.

Politics

French writer Emile Zola(1840-1902) is imprisoned for writing his "'J' Accuse" letter accusing the government of anti-Semitism and wrongly jailing Captain Alfred Dreyfus (1859-1935).

Politics

An anti-foreign, anti-Western organization called the Boxers is formed in China.

Politics

Third Parties: Eugene V. Debs (1855-1926) helps found the Social Democratic Party, later called the Socialist Party.

Government

The U.S. annexes Hawaii.

Government

The first Food and Drug Act is passed in response to public outcry over the meat supplied to U.S. troops in the Spanish-American War.

War

Spanish-American War: The USS Maine blows up in Havana harbor, touching off the Spanish-American War, which begins on April 21 when the U.S. declares war on Spain; Spain declares war on the U.S. on April 24.

Science

William Ramsay (1852-1916) discovers xenon, crypton, and neon.

Science

Radium and polonium are discovered by Marie Curie (1867-1934), who coins radioactivity.

Medicine

The bacillus that causes dysentery is discovered by Japanese bacteriologist Shiga Kioshi (1871-1951).

Medicine

Isolating a hormone for the first time in a laboratory, Ohio pharmacologist John J. Abel (b. 1818) extracts epinephrine (adrenalin) from the adrenal glands of a sheep.

Medicine

English bacteriologist Sir Ronald Ross (1857-1932), determines that malaria is transmitted by mosquitoes.

Medicine

An Army Nurse Corps is created to provide trained militaty nurses to the armed forces in the Spanish-American War, thanks in large measure to Dr. Anita Newcomb McGee (1864-1940); its first superintendent is Mrs. Rita Kenney.

Medicine

Clara Barton (1821-1912) again organizes private relief for the wounded in the Spanish-American War, as she did in the Civil War.

Inventions

Edwin Prescott patents the roller coaster.

Technology

The first dirigible airship is built by German Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin (1838-1917).

Technology

The first photographs utilizing artificial light are taken.

Technology

The Paris Metro is opened.

Technology

Argonaut II is the first submarine to travel in the open seas—300 milesfrom Virginia to New York.

Technology

Powered by electricity when underwater and by a gasoline engine when on the surface, John Holland (1841-1914) launches the Holland, a 53-foot long, cigar-shaped submarine.

Education

Highr Education: The first college of forestry is established at Cornell University.

Education

Women's Colleges: The first Phi Beta Kappa chapter at an American women's college is founded at Vassar.

Education

Women's Colleges: Florence Bascom (1862-1945) begins her long association with Byrn Mawr College, where she founded the geology department.

Education

Higher Education: Peking University is founded in China.

Arts and Letters

Drama: Bernard Shaw (1856-1950) writes the play "Caesar and Cleopatra."

Arts and Letters

The National Institute of Arts and Letters is founded.

Arts and Letters

Konstantin Stanislavsky (1863-1938), known for his techniques of "method acting," founds the Moscow Art Theatre.

Arts and Letters

Arturo Toscanini (1867-1957) is appointed the musical director of La Scala Opera House in Milan.

Arts and Letters

Drama: George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950) produces "Mrs. Warren's Profession;" it opens in New York City to a storm of protest over its content—the story of a former prostitute whose earnings allow her daughter to be raised in middle-class refinement.

Ideas

Charlotte Perkins Gilman (1860-1935) publishes "Women and Economics," a study of the economic contributions of women and the discrimination they suffer.

Daily Life

Newspapers: Hearst (1863-1951) can truthfully boast that his newspapers manufactured the public hysteria toward the war on Spain.

Daily Life

Newspapers: This is the time of media consolidation, as many independent newspapers are swallowed up into powerful "chains"; with regrettable consequences for a once fearless and incorruptible press, many were reduced to vehicles for the distribution of the particular views of their owners, and so remained, without competing papers to challenge their viewpoints.

Sports

Women in Sports: Baseball: Women''s Firsts: Lizzie Arlington becomes the first woman to sign a professional baseball contract, appearing in her first professional game pitching for the Philadelphia Reserves.

Sports

Women in Sports: Gertrude Dudley (b.1865) becomes director of women''''s athletics at the University of Chicago, becoming a major figure in American collegiate athletics for women.

Popular Culture

H.G. Wells (1866-1946) writes "War of the Worlds."

Social Issues

Native Americans: The Curtis Act re-affirms allotment of tribal lands on Indian reservations and ends tribal sovereignty in the territories.

Reform

Temperance Movement: Lillian M. N. Stevens (1844-1914) becomes president of the Women's Christian Temperance Union, succeeding Fracnes Willard; the organization begins campaigning for national prohibition.

Law

The Women's Lawyer's Club is founded.

Politics

Alfred Dreyfus (1859-1935) is pardoned by a presidential decree.

Politics

The U.S. participates in the first peace conference at the Hague with 25 other nations; the Monroe Doctrine is upheld in the Western Hemisphere; a permanent Court of International Justice and Arbitration is set up.

Government

The U.S. annexes Wake Island in the central Pacific for use as a cable station.

Government

U.S. federal law raises the age of consent for homosexual relations from 16 to 21.

War

Boer War (1899-1902) begins, between the British Empire and two Boer republics, the Orange Free State and the Transvaal Republic.

Science

Physioligist Jacques (1859-1924) Loeb demonstrates that cell division is controlled chemically.

Medicine

America's first tuberculosis hospital opens in Denver, Colorado.

Medicine

Ohio surgeon George W. Crile (1864-1943) develops new, more successful methods for treating shock.

Medicine

Although it has been used for centuries, aspirin is introduced as a "modern" medicine.

Inventions

I.R. Johnson patents the bicycle frame.

Inventions

J.S. Thurman patents the motor-driven vacuum cleaner.

Technology

Airplanes: The Wright brothers experiment with twisting wings, trying to deform the front edges. They can’t come up with a device light enough or strong enough to control a glider in flight.

Technology

The first magnetic recording of sound occurs.

Education

John Dewey (1859-1952) publishes "The School and Society," stressing the role of experience in learning.

Education

Ellen Swallow Richards (1842-1911) heads a series of summer conferences at Lake Placid, in which she teaches ways of improving the home enviroment; the new field is called home economics.

Education

Education of Women: Cornell University begins accepting women in its medical school, thus enabling the Blackwell sisters to close their Women's Medical College.

Arts and Letters

The sousaphone, a bass tuba designed for parade use, is developed and named after John Phillip Sousa (1854-1932).

Arts and Letters

Literature: Kate Chopin’s (1850-1904) second novel, "The Awakening," was published to much outrage and harsh criticism based upon moral, rather than literary, standards. Her best-known work, it is the story of a dissatisfied wife who explores her sexuality.

Ideas

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) publishes "Studies in Hysteria," putting the case for extreme repression of women's sexuality as a key factor in many sociophychological problems.

Mckinley, Ida

President McKinley (1843-1901) becomes the first president to ride in an automobile when he takes a spin in a Stanley Steamer.

Economics

The first public garage was opened in Boston, MA; space for selling, storing, and repairing vehicles was available.

Daily Life

Crime and Punishment: Through the Chicago Women's Club, Hannah Solomon (1858-1942) sparked the establishment of Cook County's pioneering juvenile court.

Daily Life

Crime and Punishment: The last bandit to rob a stagecoach in the U.S. is Pearl Hart (1878-1925).

Sports

Boxing: James J. Jeffries (1875-1953) knocks out Bob Fitzsimmons (1863-1917) to become world hevayweight boxing champion.

Sports

Women in Sports: Two teams of women ice hockey players play a game on the artifical ice at the Ice Palace in Philadelphia.

Popular Culture

Scott Joplin (1868-1917) publishes "The Maple Ragtime Leaf," helping to popularize ragtime music.

Popular Culture

Illustrator Charles Dana Gibson (1867-1944) introduces his "Gibson Girls" in a book of sketches called "The Education of Mr. Pipp."

Religion

The Gideons, Christian Commercial Men's Association, are organized by three traveling salesmen in Jamesville, Wisconsin; the first Gideon Bible is placed in the Superior Hotel, Iron Mountain, Montana, in 1908.

Reform

Civil Rights Movement: African-American suffragist Lottie Wilson Jackson proposes a resolution at NAWSA that addresses the segregation on trains that forces black women to ride in the smoking cars; her proposal is defeated.

Reform

Temperance Movement: Temperance reformer Carrie Nation (1846-1911), armed with bricks, hatchets, and hymns, enters a saloon, sings, shouts imprecations and biblical passages, and smashes bottles, furniture, and decorations.

Reform

American Protest Music: William E. Barton composes the slave spiritual “Before I’d be a Slave (Oh, Freedom).”

Politics

William McKinley (1843-1901) is reelected as the 25th President of the United States, and Theodore Roosevelt is elected as the nation's 25th Vice President.

Politics

Third Parties: The Social Democratic Party nominates Eugene V. Debs (1855-1926) for president.

Politics

Third Parties: Both the Populist and the Democratic Party nominate William Jennings Bryan (1860-1925) for President, running on a platform of free silver and anti-imperialism.

Government

Hawaii becomes a territory of the United States.

Government

Congress enacts the Gold Standard Act, allowing other forms of money to be redeemable in gold.

Government

Stamps: First U.S. stamps issued in booklet form.

War

The Boxer Rebellion against Europeans in China occurs.

Science

The element radon is discovered by F. E. Dorn.

Science

Quantum theory—the idea that energy occurs in tiny packets called quanta—is proposed.

Medicine

The first three blood groups—A, B, and O—are discovered by Karl Lansteiner (1868-1943), an Austrian physician, opening the door to safe blood transfusions.

Inventions

The rigid airship, the Zeppelin, is invented by German military officer, Ferdinand Zeppelin (1838-1917).

Technology

Work begins on the New York subway.

Technology

Airplanes: October 10 — The Wright brothers experience their first crash. They rebuild the glider, and once again test it like a kite.

Education

Children’s Books: The best-known American children''s fantasy is undoubtedly "The Wizard of Oz" by L. Frank Baum (1856-1919).

Education

Crayola Crayons: The Company begins producing slate pencils for schools.

Education

Children''s Books: Beatrix Potter (1866-1943) writes “The Tale of Peter Rabbit.”

Education

Public Education: There are 15.5 million children in public schools in the U.S.; only one in ten stay beyond the age of 14.

Arts and Letters

Drama: Anton Chekhov (1860-1904) writes "Uncle Vanya."

Arts and Letters

Opera: Giacomo Puccini (1858-1924) composes "Tosca," which opens in Rome.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Theodore Dreiser writes “Sister Carrie.”

Arts and Letters

The Philadelphia Orchestra is founded.

Ideas

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) publishes "The Interpretation of Dreams."

Mckinley, Ida

Ida McKinley (1847-1907) helps her husband conduct his famous “front porch” campaign for the Presidency from their house in Canton, Ohio.

Economics

The first Browning revolvers are manufactured.

Economics

Census: U.S. population is 75 million; life expectancy is 48 years for males and 51 years for females.

Economics

Railroad History: Casey Jones (1863-1900) rides the "Cannonball" into history on April 30th.

Discovery

Anthropologist Sir Arthur Evans (1851-1941) begins excavations of the Palace of Knossos in Crete, leading to the discovery of the Minoan civilization.

Daily Life

Dancing: The Cake Walk becomes the most fashionable dance.

Daily Life

There are more than a million miles of telephone lines in the U.S.

Sports

Women in Sports: Women''s Firsts: The first 19 women to compete in the modern Olympics Games in Paris, France, play in just three sports: tennis, golf, and croquet. Margaret I. Abbott is the first American woman to win an Olympic gold medal. An art student in Paris, she won the nine-hole golf tournament by shooting a 47.

Sports

D. F. Davis (1879-1945) first presents the international lawn tennis cup that bears his name.

Sports

William Muldoon (1845-1933) is proclaimed the first professional wrestling champion.

Sports

Black Athletes: Mace Montgomery of Georgetown University is the first African-American member of an Olympic delegation; he is a trainer.

Religion

There are 73 million Christians, 1.5 million Jews, and 10,000 Muslims in the United States.

Social Issues

Immigration: There are 3.7 new immigrants since 1891.

Reform

Labor Movement: The International Ladies’ Garment Worker’s Union is founded in New York.

Reform

Temperance Movement: Carrie Nation (1846-1911), temperance advocate, denounces saloons and liquor and supports prohibition laws.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: By now, every state has passed legislation modeled after New York’s Married Women’s Property Act (1848), granting married women some control over their property and earnings.