Law

The Seventeenth Amendment to the Constitution, providing for the election of Senators by the people of a state rather than by the state legislature, is passed by Congress.

Politics

Third Parties: After failing to gain the nomination of his own party, former Republican President Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919) defects, forming the Progressive (or Bull-Moose) party. It is the first time in American history that a third-party candidate receives more votes (electoral and popular) than one of the major two parties. However, he splits the Republican vote, thereby enabling Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924) to win.

Politics

Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924) is elected the 28th President of the United States, and Thomas Marshall (1854-1925) is elected the nation's 28th Vice President.

Politics

Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924) establishes a connection with Stalin (1879-1953) and takes over editorship of “Pravada”.

Government

Alaska becomes an organized U.S. territory.

Government

The U.S. Public Health Service is established.

Government

Labor Movement: Congress authorizes an 8-hour day for all workers under federal contracts.

Government

American Flag: The Executive Order of President Taft dated June 24, 1912 establishes the proportions of the flag and provides for the arrangement of the stars in six horizontal rows of eight each and a single point of each star to be upward.

Government

New States: Arizona and New Mexico become the 47th and 48th states of the U.S.

War

The "U.S.S. Jupiter," America’s first shop propelled by electric motors, is launched.

Science

Charles Thomson Rees Wilson’s (1869-1959) cloud-chamber photographs lead to the detection of protons and electrons.

Science

Alfred Sturtevant (1891-1970), Alabama biologist, determines that genes are lined up in a row on the chromosomes.

Science

Henry G. Mosely, English physicist. proposes the law which states that an atomic number is based on the number of protons in the nucleus. He sets 92 as the total number of elements.

Science

Alfred Wegener (1880-1930), German geologist, proposes that the modern continents were once part of a huge landmass that over time split apart. This theory is called continental drift.

Medicine

Polish chemist Kasimir Funk (1884-1967) coins the term “vitamine”.

Inventions

Edwin Bradenberger invents a process for manufacturing cellophane.

Inventions

Glenn H. Curtiss (1878-1930) invents a “flying boat” or seaplane.

Technology

Western Union and Western Electric develop a multiplex telegraph that allows eight messages to be sent over one wire at the same time.

Education

The Children’s Bureau is formed; it remains today as part of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

Education

The National Education Association creates a separate department for classroom teachers.

Education

American psychologists Henry Goddard, Lewis M. Terman, and others adapt Binet’s work to create the Intelligence Quotient, or IQ—calculated by dividing a person’s “mental age” by his chronological age.

Arts and Letters

Drama: John M. Synge (1871-1909) write his drama, “Playboy of the Western World”.

Arts and Letters

Leopold Stokowski (1882-1977) is named conductor of the Philadelphia Symphony Orchestra.

Arts and Letters

Rudolf Friml (1879-1972) composes “The Firefly,” an operetta performed in New York. to much acclaim.

Taft, Helen

Helen Taft (11861-1943) plants the first cherry tree, a gift from Japan, in Washington, DC.

Nixon, Pat

Thelma Catherine (Pat) Ryan (1912-1993), wife of President Richard Nixon (1913-1994), is born on March 16, in a mining tent in Ely, Nevada.

Economics

The F.W. Woolworth (1852-1919) Company is founded.

Discovery

Explorer R.F. Scott (1868-1912) reaches the South Pole, only to discover Amundsen (1872-1928) had been there first.

Discovery

C. Dawson announces the discovery of remains of Piltdown man, believed to be 50,000 years old near Lewes, England.

Daily Life

London has 400 cinemas; in the U.S. approximately 5,000,000 people visit cinemas daily.

Daily Life

Disasters: The "RMS Titantic” sinks on her maiden voyage after colliding with and iceberg; 1,513 people drown.

Daily Life

Dancing: Ragtime introduces a series of “animal dances.” Among them are the fox trot, crab step, kangaroo dip, camel walk, turkey trot, and the bunny hug.

Daily Life

Crime and Punishment: The first automobile driver is jailed for speeding.

Sports

The first successful parachute jump occurs.

Sports

The International Lawn Tennis Federation is formed.

Sports

Jim Thorpe (1888-1953) is the outstanding sportsman at the Stockholm Olympic Games; when it is discovered that he played semi-professional baseball in 1911, his gold medals and trophies are taken from him and his records erased from the books.

Sports

Captain Albert Louis makes the first parachute jump in the U.S. from an airplane.

Sports

Women in Sports: Many young American college women take up the latest sports craze: wall scaling.

Popular Culture

James Weldon Johnson (1871-1938), writer and poet of the "Harlem renaissance,” publishes the novel, "Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man."

Popular Culture

Zane Grey (1872-1939) publishes his popular work, "Riders of the Purple Sage."

Popular Culture

Rudolph Dirks (1877-1968) renames his comic strip “The Captain and the Kids.”

Popular Culture

Attendance at motion-picture theatres reaches 5 million daily.

Popular Culture

French photographer Charles Pathe (1863-1957) produces the first news film.

Popular Culture

"Life Magazine" lists the slang expressions of the year: flossy, beat it, peeved, sure, classy, it’s a cinch, what do you know about that, and fussed.

Religion

Pope Pius X writes his Encyclical, “Singulari quadam,” in which he encourages Catholics to belong to trade unions, but only if they are entirely composed of Catholic workers.

Social Issues

Poverty: Massachusetts passes first minimum wage law for women and children (invalidated by the Supreme Court in 1923).

Social Issues

Immigration: Illiterate immigrants are prohibited from entering the United States.

Reform

Labor Movement: New York passes 54-hour week labor law; Congress passes eight-hour day labor law for federal employees.

Reform

Labor Movement: Textile workers in Lawrence Massachusetts strike for more than two months when their wages are lowered following the new hours law.

Law

The Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution, giving Congress the power to tax personal income, is ratified by two-thirds of the states and added to the Constitution.

Law

'The Seventeenth Amendment to the Constitution, providing for the election of Senators by the people of a state rather than by the state legislature, is ratified by two-thirds of the states and added to the Constitution.

Politics

Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948), leader of Passive Resistance Movement, is arrested in South Africa after leading a march protesting unfair taxes.

Government

Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924) is inaugurated as the 28th President of the United States, and Thomas Marshall (1854-1925) is inaugurated as the nation's 28th Vice President.

Government

The domestic parcel post system begins.

Science

H. Geiger introduces the first successful electrical device capable of counting individual alpha rays.

Science

Niels Bohr (1885-1962) formulates his theory of atomic structure.

Science

Frederick Soddy (1877-1956) coins the term “isotope”.

Science

The composition of chlorophyll is discovered by Richard Willstatter

Science

Vitamins A and B are isolated by biochemist, Elmer V. McCollum, at Yale University.

Science

Rene Lorin (1877-1933) states the basic ideas of jet propulsion.

Science

Sturtevant develops a method of mapping chromosomes.

Medicine

A diphtheria immunity test is developed by Bela Schick (1877-1967).

Medicine

Frank Mallory (1862-1941) isolates the bacterium that causes whooping cough.

Inventions

William D. Coolidge (1873-1975), Massachusetts physicists, invents a hot-filament cathode tube that produces x-rays.

Technology

Airplanes: Igor Sikorski (1889-1972), Russian-American engineer, builds and flies the first multi-engine plane.

Education

John D. Rockefeller (1839-1937) founds the Rockefeller Institute with initial grant of $100 million.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Willa Cather (1873-1947) writes “O Pioneers!”.

Arts and Letters

Literature: D.H. Lawrence (1885-1930) writes “Sons and Lovers”.

Arts and Letters

Drama: “Pygmalion,” by George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950) is first performed in Vienna.

Arts and Letters

The “Armory Show” introduces Postimpressionism and cubism to New York.

Arts and Letters

Painting: J.S. Sargent (1856-1925) paints “Portrait of Henry James”.

Arts and Letters

Bruno Walter becomes director at the Munich Opera (-1922).

Arts and Letters

Victor Herbert (1859-1924) opens his operetta, “Sweethearts,” in New York.

Ideas

Edmund Husserl (1859-1938) publishes “Phenomenology.”

Ideas

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) writes “Totem and Taboo.”

Wilson, Ellen

Jesse Wilson (1887-1933), daughter of Ellen and Woodrow Wilson, marries Francis Bowes Sayre in the White House in November.

Economics

American Money: After 1893 and 1907 financial panics, the Federal Reserve Act of 1913 is passed.

Economics

Because of assembly line technology, Ford is able to produce 1000 Model T’s per day. Ford pays workers an unheard of minimum wage of $5 per day and establishes a 40-hour workweek.

Economics

President Wilson signs the Federal Reserve Act, which divides the country into 12 districts, each with a federal reserve bank.

Daily Life

Fashion: Zippers (in use since 1891) become popular.

Daily Life

Dancing: The foxtrot comes into fashion.

Daily Life

Disasters: The Dayton flood in the Miami Valley (Ohio) kills more than 400 people; property damage is $100 million.

Daily Life

Newspapers: The first crossword puzzle published in American newspapers was one composed by Arthur Wynne for the "New York World" on December 1, 1913.

Daily Life

The History of Toys: Former Olympian (Gold, Pole Vault, 1908) and medical doctor A.C. Gilbert invents the Erector Set.

Sports

The U.S. team wins the Davis Cup tennis trophy 3-2.

Sports

Baseball: Walter Johnson (1887-1946) pitches 56 consecutive innings, allowing no runs, and sets a record for the baseball season.

Sports

Football: In the first Army-Notre Dame football game, little known Notre Dame defeats Army by using the forward pass. This victory helps popularize the game by showing that a small and clever team can defeat a large and powerful one.

Popular Culture

Hollywood becomes the center of the Motion Picture industry, replacing New York City.

Popular Culture

Mack Sennett (1880-1960) begins directing the Keystone comedies, which introduce classic slapstick humor to the U.S. cinema.

Popular Culture

Eleanor H. Porter (1868-1920) publishes “Pollyanna.”

Popular Culture

Jack Judge, an Englishman and music-hall comedian, writes the song “Tipperary”.

Popular Culture

Irene (1893-1969) and Vernon (1887-1918) Castle, dancers, make their debut in New York in “The Sunshine Girl”.

Religion

Alsatian doctor and missionary Albert Schweitzer (1875-1965) opens a hospital in Lambarene, part of the French Congo.

Social Issues

Immigration: California’s Alien Land Law rules that aliens “ineligible to citizenship” were ineligible to own agricultural property.

Reform

Women’s Suffrage Movement: Suffragette demonstrations in London; Mrs. Emmeline Pankhurst (1858-1928) is sentenced for inciting persons to place explosives in Lloyd George’s house.

Reform

Labor Movement: 150,000 garment workers strike in New York City. The Strike ends 3 months later and workers win wage concessions, reduced hours, and recognition of their union.

Politics

Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948) returns to India after 21 years in South Africa and begins a non-violent campaign against British rule.

Government

President Wilson (1856-1924) signs an order establishing a permanent civil government in the Panama Canal Zone.

Government

Labor Movement: The Clayton Antitrust Act strengthens the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890. It seeks to restrict the use of court injunctions in labor disputes and exempts labor and farm organizations from antitrust laws.

Government

The U.S. Federal Trade Commission is established to police business practices in interstate commerce.

War

After the assassination of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand (1863-1914 ), heir to the Austrian throne, and his wife, World War I breaks out in Europe.

War

The city of Vera Cruz in Mexico is seized by the U.S. Marines.

Science

American, Robert H. Goddard (1882-1945), begins his rocketry experiments.

Medicine

American, E.C. Kendall (1886-1972) prepares pure thyroxin for treatment of thyroid deficiencies.

Medicine

Dr. Alexis Carrel (1873-1944) performs first successful heart surgery on a dog.

Inventions

Edwin H. Armstrong (1890-1954), N.Y. electrical engineer, patents the regenerative (feedback) circuit.

Inventions

Charles Lawrence, aeronautical engineer, develops the first successful air-cooled airplane engine. This makes long distance flights possible.

Technology

The 35 mm camera is developed.

Education

A document called "Infant Care" is published by the U.S. Government; it is intended to provide mothers with practical information on child health and nutrition, and emphasizes the importance of strict routines and rules.

Arts and Letters

Literature: James Joyce ( 1882-1941) writes “Dubliners”.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Joyce Kilmer (1886-1918) writes “Trees”.

Arts and Letters

Drama: Elmer Rice ( 1892-1967) writes “On Trial,” the first drama to use the device of a flashback.

Arts and Letters

National Capital: Henry Bacon ( 1839-1912) designs the Lincoln Memorial in Washington D.C.

Arts and Letters

Women’s Firsts: Mary Davenport-Engberg (1881-1951) is the first woman to conduct a symphony orchestra, in Bellingham, Washington.

Ideas

John B. Watson (1878-1958) publishes "Behavior; an Introduction to Comparative Psychology.”

Wilson, Ellen

Ellen Axson Wilson (1860-1914), first wife of President Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924) dies on august 6th of Bright''s disease in the White House.

Roosevelt, Eleanor

Franklin Delano Roosevelt Jr. (1914-1988), son of Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt, is born August 17.

Economics

The world’s first airline, St. Petersburg Tampa Airboat Line, starts operation in St. Petersburg, Florida.

Economics

The Panama Canal is completed. It is 40 miles long from Atlantic to Pacific coasts and cost an estimated $365 million to complete.

Discovery

Ernest Shackleton (1874-1922) begins a trans-Anarctic expedition with his ship, "Endurance."

Daily Life

The last known passenger pigeon dies in the Cincinnati Zoo.

Daily Life

Dancing: The Cotillion, once the most fashionable dance of society, takes second place to the waltz and the two-step.

Daily Life

The History of Toys: Charles Pajeau develops a toy similar to the Erector Set, but designed for younger children, called Tinker Toys.

Sports

Women in Sports: The American Olympic Committee formally opposes women's athletic competition in the Olympics. The only exception is the floor exercise, where women are allowed to only wear long skirts.

Sports

Women in Sports: Basketball: Basketball rules change to allow half-court play, expanded from the original one-third court rules. Full court play for women doesn''t come in until the 1970''s.

Sports

Boxing: Jack Dempsey (1895- 1983) starts fighting under the name “Kid Blackey.”

Sports

Golf: Walter Hagen (1892-1969) wins the U.S. Golf Association Open.

Popular Culture

William Christopher Handy (1873-1958) composes “St. Louis Blues.”

Popular Culture

E.R. Burroughs ( 1875-1950) writes “Tarzan of the Apes”.

Religion

The Assembly of God denomination is founded during an 11-day convention in Hot Springs, Arkansas.

Social Issues

Immigration: World War I in Europe breeds strong anti-immigration feelings in the United States.

Social Issues

Immigration: Almost 10.5 million immigrants enter the U.S. from southern and eastern Europe from 1905 until 1914.

Reform

Labor Movement: The Ford Motor Company begins paying its workers a basic wage of $5.00 for an 8-hour day, up from $2.40 for a 9-hour day.

Reform

Labor Movement: The American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers (ASCAP) founded.

War

The U. S. Coast Guard is created by an act of Congress.

War

Terrorism: Erich Muenter, German instructor at Cornell University, plants bomb that destroys U.S. Senate reception room (July 2), then shoots J. Pierpont Morgan, Jr. (July 3); commits suicide (July 6).

War

World War I: German airship bombs E. Anglian ports; first German submarine attack, Le Havre; German blockade of England begins; Germans sink “Lusitania”; first Zeppelin attack on London. 6(1-12)

War

U.S. states that loss of U.S. ships and lives is a violation of neutrality for which Germany is held responsible, but President Wilson acceeds to the isolationist spirit in the U.S. by refusing to enter the war in Europe.

Science

Albert Einstein (1879-1955) postulates his General Theory of Relativity.

Science

Hermann Muller, geneticist, publishes "The Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity," a classic in genetics.

Medicine

Joseph Goldberger (1874-1929) discovers that pellagra is caused by a vitamin deficiency.

Medicine

British chemist James Kendall isolates dysentery bacillus.

Inventions

The electric neon sign is patented in the United States by Georges Claude (1870-1960) of Paris, France.

Technology

Airplanes: Hugo Junkers (1859-1935) constructs the first fighter airplane.

Technology

Henry Ford (1863-1947) develops a farm tractor.

Technology

The first transcontinental telephone call is made between Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922) in New York and Dr. Thomas A. Watson in San Francisco.

Education

The multiple choice test is invented.

Education

Alabama, Florida, South Carolina, and Texas adopt similar compulsory school attendance laws.

Arts and Letters

American Theatre: The Theatre Guild is formed. It is designed as a professional theatre for quality production and introduction of European stagecraft and dramatic styles. This company eventually builds its own playhouse and has a touring production through 1960.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Joseph Conrad (1857-1924) writes “Victory.”

Arts and Letters

Literature: W. Somerset Maugham ( 1874-1965) writes “Of Human Bondage.”

Arts and Letters

Literature: Edgar Lee Masters (1869-1950)writes “A Spoon River Anthology.”

Ideas

In “Climate and Evolution,” William Mathew suggests that animals once moved from continent to continent via natural land bridges.

Wilson, Edith

President Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924) marries Mrs. Edith Galt (1872-1961).

Economics

Ford produces its one millionth car.

Economics

The taxi industry emerges when automobile owners discover that people will pay for a short automobile ride. Fare is a “jitney” (a nickel); drivers are called “hackers” or “hackies” in the East and “cabbies” in the Midwest.

Economics

William Fox (1879-1952) founds the Fox Film Company

Discovery

British archaeologist Aurel Stein (1862-1943) on an expedition to South Mongolia discovers Marco Polo’s “city of Etzina.”

Daily Life

The first Kiwanis Club is founded in Detroit.

Daily Life

The History of Toys: Johnny Gruelle, a newspaper cartoonist, begins to sell Raggedy Ann dolls based on one he had made for his daughter, Marcella.

Sports

Automobile speed record of 102.6 mph set at Sheepshead Bay, N.Y., by Gil Anderson driving a Stutz.

Sports

Boxing: Jesse Willard takes the heavyweight boxing championship from Jack Johnson in a 23-round fight at Havana, Cuba.

Popular Culture

Ivor Novello (1893-1951), a Welsh composer, writes “Keep the Home Fires Burning,” a popular patriotic war song.

Popular Culture

Films: “Birth of a Nation” (D.W. Griffith (1875-1948)); “Carmen” Cecil B. De Mille (1881-1959); “The Lamb” (Douglas Fairbanks (1883-1939); “The Fire” (Italy).

Religion

Yeshiva College (later University) and its Rabbi Issac Elchanan Rabbinical Seminary is established in New York for training in a Modern Orthodox milieu.

Social Issues

Immigration: President Wilson vetoes U.S. Senate bill requiring literacy tests for all immigrants.

Social Issues

Immigration: The Supreme Court rules in Ozawa v. United States that first-generation Japanese are ineligible for citizenship and cannot apply for naturalization.

Reform

Women''s Suffrage Movement: The U.S. House of Representatives rejects a proposal to give women the right to vote.

Reform

Birth Control Movement: Margaret Sanger (1879-1966) publishes "Family Limitation" and is jailed for supporting birth control.

Law

Louis Brandeis (1856-1941) is named to U.S. Supreme Court by President Wilson (1856-1924). He is the first Jewish Associate Justice of the Supreme Court.

Politics

Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924) is re-elected President of U.S., barely defeating Charles Evans Hughes (1862-1948); Thomas R. Marshall (1854-1925) is also re-elected.

Politics

Women’s Firsts: Jeannette Rankin (1880-1973), of Montana, is the first woman to be elected to the U.S. House of Representatives.

Politics

Charles Evans Hughes (1862-1948) leaves the Supreme Court to run for President on the Republican ticket.

Government

The National Park Service is established under U.S. department of the Interior.

Government

The Jones Act restates U.S. intention to grant independence to the Philippine Islands when a stable government is formed.

War

World War I: First Zeppelin raid on Paris; Germans introduce steel helmets; military tanks are used for the first time in Europe.

War

Francisco “Pancho” Villa (1878-1923), Mexican revolutionary general, crosses border with guerrillas and raids Columbus, New Mexico, killing 17.

War

Brig.-Gen. John J. Pershing (1860-1948) pursues Villa with 6,000 troops but cannot find him; withdraws (1917) after differences are settled by arbitration.

Science

Einstein (1879-1955) proposes a general theory of relativity to explain all laws of physics in terms of mathematical equations.

Science

National Research Council is established by the National Academy of Sciences.

Medicine

Blood for transfusions is refrigerated.

Medicine

Treatment of war causalities leads to the development of plastic surgeries.

Medicine

“Heparin,” a natural anticoagulant produced by the liver is discovered.

Medicine

Epidemics: America's worst polio epidemic occurs, killing over 7,000 and infecting more than 27,000 people.

Inventions

General John Thompson (1860-1940) invents the submachine gun, popularly called the “Tommy Gun.”

Technology

Electric clocks are introduced.

Education

John Dewey (1859-1952) publishes “Democracy and Education.”

Education

Psychologist John Watson proposes that learning is actually a series of conditioned responses.

Education

Libraries: The first presidential library, the Rutherford B. Hayes Presidential Center Library, opens in Fremont, Ohio.

Arts and Letters

Literature: James Joyce (1882-1941) writes “Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man”.

Arts and Letters

Architecture: Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959) designs the Imperial Hotel, Tokyo

Ideas

Vilfredo Pareto (1848-1923) writes “Mind and Society.”

Roosevelt, Eleanor

John Aspinwall Roosevelt (1916-1981), son of Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt, is born March 13.

Economics

U.S. purchases Danish West Indies (Virgin Islands) for $25 million.

Economics

The Keating-Owen Act is passed, forbidding the transportation among states of products of factories, shops or canneries employing children under 14 years of age, of mines employing children under 16 years of age, and the products of any of these employing children under 16 who worked at night or more than eight hours a day.

Discovery

Space Exploration: I. P. Grave from Russia''s Artillery Academy submits a proposal for rockets burning smokeless gun powder.

Daily Life

“Summertime” (daylight-saving time) introduced in Britain.

Daily Life

Magazines: The “Saturday Evening Post” uses its first Norman Rockwell painting as its cover.

Daily Life

The History of Toys: John Lloyd Wright, the son of architect Frank Lloyd Wright invents Lincoln Logs, interlocking toy logs children use to build imaginative structures.

Sports

Women in Sports: 100 women compete in the first "Championship of the World" bowling tournament on Nov. 26-19 in St. Louis. The total purse was $222. The Women's National Bowling Association is organized as a result of the success of the tournament.

Sports

Black Athletes: Fritz Pollard (1894-1986) is the first black All-America RB (1916 at Brown); 1st black to play in Rose Bowl; 7-year NFL pro (1920-26); first black NFL coach, at Milwaukee and Hammond, Ind.

Sports

Women in Sports: Women’s International Bowling Congress established in America.

Sports

Golf: Bobby Jones (1902-1971) makes his debut in U.S. golf.

Sports

Golf: The Professional Golf Association (PGA) is formed.

Popular Culture

Jazz sweeps U.S.

Religion

Martin Buber (1878-1965) writes “The Spirit of Judaism.”

Reform

Anti-Child Labor Movement: Child labor laws in South Carolina raise the minimum age of children for work in the mills, factories, and mines from 12-14.

Reform

Labor Movement: A law establishing eight-hour work day for railroad prevents a nation-wide strike.

Reform

Birth Control Movement: Margaret Sanger (1879-1966) joins in opening first birth control clinic.

Reform

Temperance Movement: Prohibition gains ground as 24 states vote against alcoholic beverages.

Law

Prohibition: The Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution, prohibiting the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors, is passed by Congress.

Government

The U.S. Congress passes the Jones-Shafroth Act, making Puerto Rico a territory of the United States and its inhabitants U.S. citizens.

Government

Literacy requirements for U.S. citizenship are passed over Wilson’s (1856-1924) veto.

Government

Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924) is inaugurated again as President of U.S., as is Thomas R. Marshall (1854-1925) as Vice President.

Government

The U.S. Senate rejects President Wilson’s suffrage bill.

War

World War I: First U.S. division arrives in France; October Revolution in Petrograd November 7 (old style calendar October 26).

War

World War I: The Allies execute dancer Mata Hari (1876-1917) as a Spy.

War

World War I: President Wilson (1856-1924) signs the declaration of war against the Axis powers on April 7; anti-German sentiment swells at home. The names of schools, foods, streets, towns, and even some families, are changed to sound less Germanic.

Science

100-inch reflecting telescope installed at Mount Wilson, California.

Science

Einstein (1879-1955) proposes his theory of a static (unchanging) universe.

Medicine

Vaccines: Ralph Parker develops a vaccine for Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever.

Medicine

Julius Wagner-Jauregg (1857-1940) discovers the malarial fever shock therapy for general paresis of the insane.

Technology

Radios are used for ground-to-air and air-to-air communication.

Education

Public Education: Smith-Hughes Act passes, providing federal funding for vocational education. Big manufacturing corporations push this, because they want to remove job skill training from the apprenticeship programs of trade unions and bring it under their own control.

Arts and Letters

Sarah Bernhardt (1844-1923), 72, begins last tour of America.

Arts and Letters

Painting: J.S. Sargent (1856-1925) paints “Portrait of John D. Rockefeller.”

Arts and Letters

Chicago becomes the world’s jazz center.

Arts and Letters

Sigmund Romberg (1887-1951) composes his operetta, “Maytime,” in New York.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Millay (1892-1950) publishes "Renascence and Other poems."

Ideas

C.G. Jung (1875-1961) writes “Psychology of the Unconscious.”

Ideas

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) writes “Introduction to Psychoanalysis.”

Eisenhower, Mamie

Doud Dwight (Ikky) Eisenhower (1917-1921), son of Dwight and Mamie Eisenhower, is born September 24.

Economics

Charlie Chaplin’s (1889-1977) yearly salary reaches one million dollars.

Economics

Ford Motor Company begins producing trucks and tractors.

Economics

Railroad History: The first Diesel-electric locomotive in the U.S. was a prototype built by G.E. Number 4 had one model GM50 air injection two-stroke V8 rated at 225 HP @ 550 rpm powering one of two trucks. The cylinders had the same 8" x 10" dimensions as the GM16. It was never sold, serving only as a laboratory model at the Erie Works.

Daily Life

Fashion: Bobbed hair as a ladies hair fashion sweeps Britain and the U.S.

Sports

Baseball: First baseball game played on Polo Grounds on a Sunday between New York Giants and Cincinnati Reds; the game results in the arrest of managers John McGraw (1873-1934) (Giants) and Christy Mathewson (1880-1925) (Reds) for violating New York blue law.

Sports

Women in Sports: Lucy Diggs Slowe wins the singles title at the first American Tennis Association (ATA) national tournament, becoming the first female African-American national champion in any sport.

Popular Culture

Booth Tarkington (1869-1946) reveals the joys of male adolescence in “Seventeen.”

Popular Culture

Buster Keaton (1895-1966), actor and director, establishes his comedy trademark of deadpan expressions in the film The Butcher Boy.

Popular Culture

George M. Cohan (1878-1942) writes American war song “Over There.”

Social Issues

Immigration: The U.S. enters World War I and anti-German sentiment swells at home. The names of schools, foods, streets, towns, and even some families, are changed to sound less Germanic.

Reform

Labor Movement: I.W.W. demonstrations against war result in raids on their offices.

Reform

Women''s Suffrage Movement: Four women are arrested for picketing for woman’s suffrage (the right to vote) in front of the White House; they are sentenced to 6 months in prison.

Politics

In the U.S. Congressional elections, Republicans win a majority of 43 seats.

Politics

T.G. Masaryk (1850-1937) is elected president of Czechoslovakia .

Politics

Eugene V. Debs (1855-1926), American socialist and presidential candidate, is sentenced to 10 years in prison for violating espionage and sedition laws (sentence is commuted in 1921).

Government

Iceland becomes sovereign state.

Government

Serbo-Croatian-Slovene Kingdom of Yugoslavia proclaimed.

Government

Stamps: U.S. Airmail stamps go on sale for 24 cents. The United States began airmail service on May 15, 1918. Special stamps were issued to indicate prepayment of mail carried on the first flights. The first route, flown by Army pilots in Army planes, linked Washington, DC and New York City via Philadelphia, PA. The rate was 24 cents an ounce. This rate included special delivery to the addressee.

War

World War I: Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924) propounds Fourteen Points for world peace; Germany offensive on Western front; Czechoslovakia proclaimed independent republic; Allies sign armistice with Austria-Hungary on November 3; Allied conference at Versailles agrees on peace terms for Germany; Armistice signed between Allies and Germany.

War

World War I: mobilized forces: 63 million; casualties: approx. 8.5 million killed, 21 million wounded, 7.5 million prisoners and missing.

War

Russian Revolution: Ex-Czar Nicholas II (1868-1918) and family executed.

Science

Nobel Prize for Physics: Max Planck (1858-1947), German physicist, for introducing quantum theory.

Science

Herbert M. Evans (1882-1971) determines that human beings have 48 chromosomes.

Medicine

Epidemics: An influenza epidemic, traveling west from Europe, begins in the eastern U.S. and spreads to 46 states. Before it ends in 1919, about 500,000 people die in the U.S. Throughout the world, 20 million people die and one billion are ill.

Inventions

Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922) invents a hydrofoil boat that goes 60 mph during a test run.

Technology

The Mount Wilson telescope is completed near Pasadena, California.

Education

Higher Educaton: A second Moscow University is founded (first university founded 1755).

Education

Mississippi passes school attendance laws for children between the ages of six and seventeen.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Willa Cather (1873-1947) writes “My Antonia”.

Arts and Letters

Essay: H.L. Mencken (1880-1956): “In Defense of Women”.

Arts and Letters

Painting: Joan Miro (1893-1983) first exhibits his works.

Arts and Letters

The New York Philharmonic Society bans composition by living German composers.

Arts and Letters

Opera: Paris Opera, despite daily bombardment, opens with Gounod’s (1818-1893) “Faust”.

Arts and Letters

Mrs. Elizabeth Sprague Coolidge (1864-1953) gives the first of her music festivals in Pittsfield, Massachusetts (Tanglewood).

Arts and Letters

Henry Adams (1851-1921) writes “The Education of Henry Adams,” which later wins the Pulitzer Prize.

Ideas

Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929), pioneer in the development of American sociology, publishes “Social Process.”

Ideas

Oswald Spengler (1880-1936) writes “Untergang des Abendlandes” (“Decline of the West”) (-1922).

Ideas

There is major controversy over the new psychology of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and C.G. Jung (1875-1961).

Ford, Betty

Elizabeth Anne ("Betty") Bloomer, wife of Gerald Ford, is born in Chicago on April 8.

Economics

Railroad History: The first Diesel-electric locomotive to be built and sold commercially was Jay Street Connecting RR #4. G.E. slightly revised its standard steeple cab straight electric locomotive car body and installed a single GM50.

Economics

The Pittman Act is passed, permitting the government to sell silver to Britain as a wartime measure.

Discovery

Harlow Shapley (1885-1972), American astronomer, discovers the true dimensions of the Milky Way.

Discovery

Archaeologists Hall and Leonard Woolley (1880-1960) begin excavations in ancient sites in Babylonia (present-day Iraq).

Daily Life

Regular airmail established between New York City and Washington; first airmail postage.

Daily Life

Daylight saving time introduced in America.

Daily Life

Census: Total population in the U.S.: 103.5 million.

Daily Life

First Chicago-New York airmail delivered: flying time 10 hrs. 5 min.

Sports

Football: Knute Rockne (1888-1931) is named head football coach at the University of Notre Dame.

Sports

Boxing: Jack Dempsey (1895-1983), American heavy-weight boxing champion, knocks out Carl Morris in 14 seconds.

Sports

Women in Sports: Eleanora Sears (a great-great-granddaughter of Thomas Jefferson, born in 1881) takes up squash, after excelling at polo (which she rode astride, shocking conventions of the day), baseball, golf, field hockey, auto racing, swimming, tennis, yachting and speedboat racing. She accumulated 240 trophies during her athletic career. She demonstrated that women could play men's games and was a prime liberator of women in sports.

Popular Culture

Composer George Gershwin (1898-1937) writes the song “Swanee” for the Broadway show Sinbad.

Religion

United Lutheran Church established (U.S.).

Social Issues

Censorship: U.S. Post Office burns installments of James Joyce’s (1882-1941) “Ulysses,” published in the “Little Review”.

Reform

Women's Suffrage Movement: Women over 30 get the right to vote in Britain.

Reform

Birth Control Movement: New York v. Sanger; Margaret Sanger wins her suit in New York to allow doctors to advise their married patients about birth control for health purposes.

Law

The Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution, prohibiting the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors, is ratified by two-thirds of the states and added to the Constitution.

Law

Women's Suffrage Movement: The Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution, giving women the right to vote, is passed by Congress.

Politics

Benito Mussolini (1883-1945) founds the political party, Fasci del Combattimento.

Politics

In Paris, the League of Nations comes into being. The Hague is selected for the International Court of Justice.

Politics

The Republican convention nominates Warren G. Harding (1865-1923) for the presidency with Calvin Coolidge (1872-1933) as his running mate.

Politics

The Democratic convention nominates James M. Cox (1870-1957) for the presidency with Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945) as his running mate.

Government

Women's Firsts: Lady Astor (1879-1964) becomes the first woman to be elected as a Member of Parliament in Britain.

Government

Capital Punishment: Austria abolishes the death penalty.

Government

President Woodrow Wilson presents his Fourteen Points for world peace to the American Congress; these Conditions of Peace are intended to guarantee future cooperation among the nations of the world and contain the foundations for a world organization called the League of Nations.

Government

League of Nations: The plenary session of the Peace Conference accepts the proposals for the creation of a League of Nations; the U.S. Senate, however, votes against joining the League.

War

World War I: The Treaty of Versailles is signed, officially ending World War I. Part 1, Articles 1 to 26 of this and other Peace Treaties contain the Covenant of the League of Nations.

Science

English scientist F.W. Aston (1877-1945) builds mass-spectrograph and establishes the phenomena of isotopy.

Science

Observation of the total eclipse of the sun bear out Albert Einstein’s (1879-1955) theory of relativity.

Science

Robert H. Goddard (1882-1945), “Father of American Rocketry” writes “A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes”.

Science

Rutherford (1871-1937) demonstrates that the atom is not the final building-block of the universe.

Science

First experiments with shortwave radio (under 100 meters).

Science

In collaboration with Massolle and Engl, Hans Vogt (1903-1986) experiments on a new sound film system.

Inventions

Glenn L. Martin (1886-1955) invents the Martin Bomber, a warplane.

Education

Higher Education: New universities are founded in Hamburg, Posen, Bratislava, and Cologne.

Education

Children's Books; Hugh Lofting (1886-1947): the first of the “Dr. Doolittle” stories.

Education

Higher Education: A.D. Juilliard ( -1919)dies leaving 20 million dollars to endow Juilliard School of Music.

Arts and Letters

The Los Angeles Symphony Orchestra gives its first concert.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Sinclair Lewis (1885-1951) writes “Main Street”.

Arts and Letters

Drama: Eugene O’Neill (1888-1953) writes “The Emperor Jones” and “Beyond the Horizon."

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Carl Sandburg (1878-1967) writes “Corn Huskers,” which wins the Pulitzer Prize.

Arts and Letters

Bauhaus, founded and built by Walter Gropius (1883-1969) in Weimar, Germany, revolutionizes the teaching of painting, sculpture, architecture, and industrial arts.

Arts and Letters

Jazz arrives in Europe.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Sherwood Anderson (1876-1941) writes “Winesburg, Ohio,” a volume of interrelated short stories.

Ideas

Johan Huizinga (1872-1945) writes “The Waning of the Middle Ages.”

Ideas

C.G. Jung (1875-1961) writes “Psychological Types.”

Roosevelt, Edith

Former President Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919) dies in Oyster Bay, New York.

Hoover, Lou

Herbert Hoover (1874-1964) is named Director-General of International Organization for European Relief.

Economics

Ford Motor Company: A conflict with stockholders over the millions to be spent building the giant Rouge manufacturing complex in Dearborn, Michigan leads to the company becoming wholly owned by Henry Ford and his son, Edsel, who then succeeds his father as president.

Economics

J.M. Keynes (1883-1946) writes “The Economic Consequence of the Peace.”

Economics

The Radio Corporation of America (RCA) is established.

Daily Life

Transportation: J.W. Alcock and A. Whitten Brown (1886-1948) make first nonstop flight across the Atlantic from Newfoundland to Ireland in 16 hours 27 minutes.

Daily Life

Railroad lines operated in America total 265,000 miles.

Daily Life

The American Legion is formed.

Sports

Boxing: Jack Dempsey (1895-1983), U.S. heavyweight boxer, takes the world championship from Jess Willard.

Sports

Baseball: Babe Ruth (1895-1948) hits a 587 ft. home run in a Boston Red Sox versus. New York Giants game in Tampa, Florida.

Sports

Jim Thorpe (1888-1953), the great American all around athlete, finishes his 6-year major league baseball career with the Boston Braves; plays in 60 game; hits .327.

Sports

Horse Racing: Sir Barton is first horse to win triple crown: Kentucky Derby, Preakness, and Belmont Stakes; J. Loftus jockey in all three.

Sports

The development of a mechanical rabbit by Oliver Smith (1893-1977), of California, marks origin of modern greyhound racing.

Sports

Baseball: Black Sox Scandal: Eight players on the Chicago White Sox conspire with gamblers to throw the World Series. They are acquitted in a court of law—but they are banned from baseball forever.

Religion

Karl Barth (1886-1968): “Der Romerbrief” (“The Epistle to the Romans”), beginning of Protestant dialectical theology.

Religion

Church and State separated in Germany.

Religion

Joan of Arc (1412-1431) canonized by Pope Benedict XV.

Reform

Labor Movement: Calvin Coolidge (1872-1933), governor of Massachusetts, calls out the National Guard to end Boston Police Strike.

Reform

Labor Movement: The great American steel strike occurs, lasting until January 1920.

Reform

Labor Movement: An International Labor Conference in Washington endorses eight-hour workday.

Law

A year after ratification, the 18th Amendment to the Constitution, prohibiting the sale of alcoholic beverages, goes into effect.

Law

The Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution, giving women the right to vote, is ratified by two-thirds of the states and added to the Constitution.

Politics

The German Worker’s Party is renamed the Nationalist Socialist German Workers’ or Nazi Party.

Politics

Warren G. Harding (1865-1923) is elected as the 29th President of the U.S., and Calvin Coolidge (1872-1933) is elected as the nation's 29th Vice President.

Government

The Senate rejects the Treaty of Versailles and the Covenant of the League of Nations for the second time.

Government

The League of Nations comes into existence with its headquarters in Geneva; the Versailles Peace Treaty and the Covenant of the League of Nations enter into force.

Government

The Water Power Act establishes the Federal Power Commission to regulate the generation of electricity from waterways on public lands and from navigational streams.

Government

The “Red Scare’ results in nationwide raids by federal agents, with mass arrests of “anarchists, Communists, and labor agitators.

Science

William D. Harkins (1873-1951) proposes the existence of an uncharged subatomic particle, which he calls the “neutron.”

Medicine

Harvey Cushing (1869-1939) pioneers new techniques in brain surgery.

Medicine

Insulin is isolated for the first time by Canadian Sir Frederick Banting (1891-1941) and Charles Best (1899-1978).

Inventions

Nobel Prize for Physics goes to Charles Guillaume (1861-1938), a Swiss physicist, for the invention of Invar, an alloy of iron containing nickel.

Arts and Letters

Literature: F. Scott Fitzgerald (1896-1940), an important novelist of the period, publishes his first novel entitled "This Side of Paradise."

Arts and Letters

Literature: Sinclair Lewis (1885-1951) publishes "Main Street," a novel that exposes the cultural vacuum of a small Midwestern town.

Ideas

In "Easy Lessons in Einstein," Edwin E. Slosson explains the theory of relativity in a simple and clear manner.

Economics

The Jones Act prohibits shipping merchandise between U.S. ports "in any other vessel than a vessel built in and documented under the laws of the United States and owned by persons who are citizens of the United States.''''

Economics

Ford Motor Company: The Detroit-Toledo-Ironton (DTI) railroad proves to be a smart purchase for the Ford Motor Company (FMC). After purchasing the railway, FMC uses it for the next 8 years to control transport of materials and supplies to the massive Rouge plant in Dearborn, Michigan.

Sports

Baseball: The Negro National League, the first financially successful all-black league, is founded by Hall-of-Famer Rube Foster.

Sports

Women in Sports: The skimpy fashions of the '20's put a new emphasis on athletic bodies and narrow the gap between health and glamour. Advertisers, like Grape-Nuts, say, "Grandmother went bathing - girls like Molly go in to swim."

Sports

Baseball: The Boston Red Sox sell Babe Ruth (1895-1948) to the New York Yankees.

Sports

William T. Tilden (1893-1953) wins Wimbledon Lawn Tennis; after this victory, he dominates world tennis until 1925.

Popular Culture

KDKA, America’s first commercial radio station, begins operation in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania by broadcasting the results of the presidential election.

Religion

Use of religion in Turkey for political ends is made punishable by death.

Reform

Women''s Suffrage Movement: Women get the right to vote when the Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution is ratified. By this time, 15 states have women suffrage laws.

Law

Chief Justices: President Warren G. Harding (1865-1923) nominates William Howard Taft (1857-1930) as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, and the Senate confirms his appointment on the same day. Taft is the only person in history to have been both President and Chief Justice.

Law

League of Nations: The Permanent Court of International Justice comes into being.

Government

Warren G. Harding (1865-1923) is inaugurated as the 29th President of the U.S., and Calvin Coolidge (1872-1933) is inaugurated as the nation's 29th Vice President.

Government

Immigration: Congress passes the Quota Act, which limits immigration in the United States.

Government

The Department of Agriculture enforces regulations of the Packers and Stockyards Act to stop manipulation of prices in meat-packing industries.

War

The joint resolution of Congress declares that World War I has ended. Separate U.S. treaties with Germany, Austria, and Hungary are signed and ratified.

Science

Langmuir (1881-1957) and Lewis (1875-1946) independently propose atomic theories.

Medicine

James B. Collip (1892-1965) isolates pure insulin.

Medicine

Edward Mellanby (1884 - 1955) discovers vitamin D and shows that its absence causes rickets.

Inventions

Physician Alvan L. Barach designs a vented oxygen tent.

Technology

John Couch Adams (1819-1892) uses a spectroscope to study and determine the distance of 2000 stars.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: William Butler Yeats (1865-1939) publishes "Michael Robartes and the Dancer," a collection that includes his famous poem, Easter 1916.

Arts and Letters

Women’s Firsts: Literature: American novelist Edith Wharton(1862-1937) becomes the first woman to win a Pulitzer Prize for fiction. She wins the award for her novel "The Age of Innocence."

Ideas

Ernst Kretschmer (1888-1964) publishes "Physique and Character," in which he suggests that body build is closely related to mental state.

Eisenhower, Mamie

Doud Dwight (Ikky) Eisenhower (1917-1921), son of Dwight and Mamie Eisenhower dies January 2 from scarlet fever.

Reagan, Nancy

Anne Frances “Nancy” Robbins is born on July 6, 1921 at Sloane Hospital, Flushing, Queens, New York. She is the ninth of ten First Ladies born in New York, the “mother state” of presidential wives.

Economics

The end of the wartime boom causes business depression and high unemployment. The National Conference proposes a job program.

Economics

Unemployment throughout the U.S. is 5.7 million. Widespread wage cuts in many industries include those of New York Central railroad employees (by 22.5%) and clothing workers (by 15%).

Daily Life

Iowa imposes the first state tax on cigarettes.

Daily Life

Magazines: Publisher DeWitt Wallace (1889-1981) founds the Reader’s Digest.

Daily Life

Knee-length skirts for women become the fashion, causing much comment in the press.

Sports

Baseball: Station KDKA in Pittsburgh broadcasts radio’s first live major league game. (Fewer than 10 percent of Americans own a radio.)

Sports

Women in Sports: The National Women's Athletic Association is organized.

Social Issues

Immigration: California’s Supreme Court declares the state’s Alien Poll Tax unconstitutional and a violation of the treaty between the U.S. and Japan.

Social Issues

Hate Groups: The Ku Klux Klan promotes “white supremacy” and seeks to control politics in many southern communities.

Reform

Birth Control Movement: National Birth Control League and Voluntary Parenthood League are combined to form the American Birth Control League in New York City; Margaret Sanger heads the league.

Law

The Supreme Court declares that the Federal Child Labor Law is unconstitutional.

Politics

Women's Firsts: Soledad Chacon is elected Secretary State of New Mexico, the first woman elected to that position.

Government

Women’s Firsts: Rebecca Felton (1835 – 1930), of Georgia, is appointed to the U.S. Senate to fill a temporary vacancy. The first woman senator, she serves for only two days.

Government

League of Nations: The first meeting of the Permanent Court of International Justice occurs.

Government

Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948) is arrested by the British in India for inciting his countrymen to violence in their fight for independence.

Government

U.S. and Japan sign Yap Treaty, permitting U.S. cable and radio stations in the Yap Islands.

War

U.S. Open Doors Policy is implemented in China. Nine major powers also sign treaties limiting warships, restricting the use of submarines, and outlawing poisonous gas.

Science

Alfred C. Lane begins experiments to determine the age of the earth.

Medicine

Elmer McCollum (1879-1967) discovers vitamin D in cod liver oil. He uses the oil in the successful treatment of rickets.

Inventions

British watchmaker John Howard invents the self-winding watch.

Technology

Ship to shore radio communication begins.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: James Joyce (1882-1941) publishes "Ulysses."

Arts and Letters

Literature: F. Scott Fitzgerald (1896-1940) publishes "The Beautiful and the Damned."

Ideas

Herman Julius Oberth (1894-1989) writes "The Rocket into Interdisciplinary Space," in which the concept of escape velocity is introduced.

Eisenhower, Mamie

John Sheldon Doud Eisenhower (1922-), son of Dwight and Mamie Eisenhower, is born August 3.

Daily Life

Lt. Harold Harris becomes the first member of the Caterpillar Club by parachuting from a defective plane during a flight test in Dayton, Ohio. The club is made up of individuals who have escaped death by using a parachute.

Daily Life

Marriages in the U.S. total 1,126,000 and divorces total 148,000.

Sports

Golf: The oldest American international team golf match takes place between the U.S. and Great Britain. It is established at the National Golf Links of America, Southampton, NY.

Sports

Women in Sports: The National Amateur and Athletic Federation (NAAF) is founded, committed to boys and girls being on an "equal footing with the same standards, the same program and the same regulations."

Social Issues

Racism: Oklahoma is placed under marshal law to control violence and curb Ku Klux Klan activity.

Reform

Birth Control Movement: Dr. Marie Stopes (1880-1958) holds a series of meetings in Queen’s Hall, London to advocate birth control.

Government

Intermediate Credits Act expands credit to farmers and encourages farm cooperatives in an effort to ease agricultural depression.

Government

Vice President Calvin Coolidge (1872-1933)becomes the nation's 30th President on the death of President Warren G. Harding (1865-1923). No new Vice President is selected.

War

Payment of British war debt to the U.S. begins.

War

U.S. troops on the Rhine River in Germany are ordered to return by President Haring (1865-1923).

Science

Louis A. Bauer analyzes the Earth’s magnetic field.

Medicine

Insulin becomes generally available to people with diabetes.

Medicine

Vaccines: First vaccine for Diphtheria is used.

Inventions

The bulldozer is invented.

Arts and Letters

Drummer Buddy Rich tours the U.S. and Australia as a child prodigy on the drums.

Ideas

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) publishes his theories on the human mind in "The Ego and the Id."

Harding, Florence

President Harding (1865-1923) dies suddenly in San Francisco on his return trip from Alaska. His father in Vermont swears in Coolidge (1872-1933) as President.

Economics

The DuPont Company acquires the rights to manufacture Cellophane; the first U.S. made Cellophane is produced in 1924.

Economics

In order to build a Model T automobile, Ford required approximately 250 feet of lumber for each car that it built. As a result, Henry Ford authorized the purchase of several hundred thousand acres of forestland in northern Michigan.

Discovery

Native Americans: Oil is discovered on the Navajo Reservation.

Daily Life

Magazines: Time Magazine hits the newsstands for the first time, at $.15 a copy.

Daily Life

Disasters: An earthquake in Japan destroys Yokohama and half of Tokyo; about 100,000 people die.

Sports

Finnish Paavo Nurmi runs the mile in 4 minutes and 10.4 seconds.

Sports

Women in Sports: 22% of U.S. colleges have varsity sports teams for women.

Popular Culture

Cecil B. DeMille (1881-1959), film director and producer, releases the Biblical spectacle The Ten Commandments.

Popular Culture

"e Covered Wagon," voted as one of the 10 best movies of the year by Film Daily, sets the style and popularity for Westerns.

Social Issues

Racism: The African-American town of Rosewood, Florida is burned by a white mob.

Reform

Women''s Rights Movement: National Woman’s Party proposes Constitutional amendment stating that “Men and women shall have equal rights throughout the United States and in every place subject to its jurisdiction. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.”

Politics

The Progressive Party, backed by the American Federation of Labor, Farm-Labor Party and the Socialist Party, nominates senator La Follette of Wisconsin for President.

Politics

Calvin Coolidge (1872-1933) is elected President of the U.S. in his own right, and Charles Dawes (1865-1951) is elected the nation's 30th Vice President.

Government

Native Americans: Congress passes the Indian Citizenship Act, granting U.S. citizenship to Native Americans.

Government

Immigration: Immigration Act of 1924 establishes fixed quotas of national origin and eliminates Far East immigration.

Government

Greece is proclaimed a republic.

Government

The diplomatic and consular services of the U.S. government are consolidated.

War

The U.S. Marines land at Shanghai, China to help suppress the civil war.

Science

Scientist Harry Steenbock discovers that sunlight increases the amount of vitamin D in certain foods. After tests prove that it is the ultraviolet part of sunlight, which has this effect, Steenbock patents a process of using artificial ultraviolet light to increase the vitamin D content in food.

Medicine

The portable electrocardiograph is introduced. It uses vacuum tubes to amplify the weak electrical signals produced by the heart.

Technology

RCA demonstrates wireless telegraph transmission of photographs from New York City to London; the process takes about 25 minutes per photograph.

Education

Children's Books: A.A. Milne (1882-1956), English humorist, publishes When We Were Very Young, a collection of stories for his son, Christopher.

Arts and Letters

Paul Whiteman (1890-1967) commissions George Gershwin (1898-1937) to write the symphonic jazz-style “Rhapsody in Blue.”

Truman, Bess

(Mary) Margaret Truman Daniel (1924-), daughter of Harry and Bess Truman, is born February 17.

Coolidge, Grace

Calvin Coolidge Jr. (1908-1924), son of Calvin and Grace Coolidge, dies July 7.

Economics

Harry Cohn founds Columbia pictures.

Discovery

Hubble determines that Cepheid variables (stars) in the Andromeda nebula are hundreds of thousands of light years beyond the Milky Way. This is conclusive proof that there are other galaxies besides our own.

Daily Life

Crime and Punishment: The gas chamber is used for the first time as a method of execution in the United States when gangster Gee Jon is put to death in Nevada.

Daily Life

The publisher Simon and Schuster market the first crossword puzzle book.

Daily Life

There are 2.5 million radios in the U.S.; in 1920 there were only 5000, mostly used by professionals.

Sports

The first Winter Olympic games open at Chamonix, France.

Sports

Football: Notre Dame''s “Four Horseman” – Layden, Stuhldreher, Miller, and Crowley – star as Notre Dame upsets Army.

Sports

Black Athletes: Olympic gold medalist (summer games; individual): DeHart Hubbard (1903-1976) is the gold medalist for the long jump.

Social Issues

Immigration: The Johnson-Reed Act is passed, severely limiting immigration.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: Radice v. New York, a New York state case, upholds a law that forbade waitresses from working the night shift but made an exception for entertainers and ladies' room attendants.

Politics

Nellie Taylor Ross (1876-1977) becomes the Governor of Wyoming, being the first woman to be elected as governor of a state.

Government

The Senate ratifies 20-year-old treaty, which recognizes the right of Cuba to the Isle of Pines.

Government

The U.S. and Canada agree to improve the St. Lawrence River between Montreal and Lake Ontario.

Government

The boundary between Northern Ireland and the Irish Free State (now the Republic of Ireland) is established.

Government

Women’s Firsts: Nellie Tayloe Ross (1876-1997) becomes the first woman to serve as governor of a state, in Wyoming.

Government

Calvin Coolidge (1872-1933) is inaugurated as President of the U.S., and Charles Dawes (1865-1951) is inaugurated as the nation's 30th Vice President.

Science

Millikan (1868-1953) discovers that cosmic rays are absorbed (not produced) by the atmosphere.

Science

The meter is standardized.

Medicine

George H. Whipple (1878-1976) demonstrates that iron is a major factor in the formation of red blood cells.

Inventions

Berliner (1851-1929) invents acoustic tiles for soundproofing.

Inventions

Railroad History: The American Locomotive Company (ALCO), along with G.E. and IR, builds its first Diesel electric loco.

Education

Higher Education: Trinity College in North Carolina agrees to change its name to Duke University to meet the terms of a $40 million trust fund established by James B. Duke, a tobacco millionaire.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Ernest Hemingway (1899-1961) publishes "In Our Time."

Arts and Letters

Literature: F. Scott Fitzgerald (1896-1940) publishes "The Great Gatsby."

Arts and Letters

Writer DuBose Heyward (1885-1940) publishes "Porgy," on which the musical "Porgy and Bess" is later based.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Theodore Dreiser’s (1871-1945) first commercial success was "An American Tragedy" (1925), which was made into a film in 1931 and again in 1951.

Arts and Letters

American Theatre: Since Harvard was not supportive of the theatre movement on their campus, the efforts were relocated to Yale in 1925. As a result, Yale established the Drama School as a graduate program that was committed to providing American theatre with gifted artists of superior training.

Ideas

John Watson publishes "Behaviorism," a book that sparks popular interest in psychology.

Nixon, Pat

At the age of 13, “Pat” Ryan (Nixon) assumes the role of housewife for her family when her mother, Kate Halberstadt Bender Ryan, a native of Germany, dies of cancer.

Bush, Barbara

Barbara Pierce is born on June 8 in New York City. She is the tenth of ten First Ladies born in New York, the "mother state" of presidential wives.

Economics

The Ford Motor Company acquires the Lincoln Motor Company, thus branching out into luxury cars.

Daily Life

Disasters: The most violent tornado is U.S. history, the “Tri-State Tornado,” hits Missouri, Indiana, and Illinois, killing 689 people and injuring 13,000 others.

Daily Life

Magazines: The New Yorker magazine is founded.

Popular Culture

Alexander Alekhine (1892-1946), blindfolded, plays 28 simultaneous games of chess.

Religion

A copy of the Bible costs the equivalent of about $2000 in the 14th century, $500 in 1455, $100 by the 17th century, and $3 in 1925.

Religion

Public Education: Tennessee teacher John T. Scopes is arrested for teaching the Theory of Evolution, which is forbidden by state law. This dispute known as the “Monkey Trial” attracts enormous attention; Scopes is convicted and fined $100.

Politics

Third Parties: The Progressive Party wins seats in Congress in the fall election.

Government

The U.S. fails to join the Permanent Court of International Justice and Arbitration at The Hague.

Government

Senate ratifies World War debt funding agreements with European countries.

Government

Congress passes the Revenue Act which reduces income and inheritance taxes and abolishes many nuisance taxes.

Government

League of Nations: The first meeting of the Preparatory Disarmament Commission occurs in Geneva.

War

Congress establishes the Army Air Corps.

Science

German physicist, Max Born (1882-1970), formulates the mathematical basis of the quantum theory.

Medicine

George Minot (1885-1950), William Murphy (1892-1987), and George Whipple (1878-1976) use a diet rich in raw liver to cure patients who are suffering from pernicious anemia, a usually fatal disease. Later, Minot and Edwin Cohn prepare liver extract that remains the basic treatment for this disease until 1948.

Medicine

Vaccines: First vaccine for Pertussis is used.

Technology

The first liquid fuel rocket is successfully launched by Professor Robert Goddard at Auburn, Massachusetts; the rocket traveled 184 feet in 2.5 seconds.

Technology

The Radio Corporation of America, American Telephone and Telegraph Company, and the British General Post office hold the first successful transatlantic radiotelephone conversation between New York City and London.

Education

Carter G. Woodson (1875-1950) founds Negro History Week, which later evolves into Black History Month.

Education

Children's Books: A.A. Milne (1882-1956) publishes "Winnie the Pooh," one of the most popular children’s books ever written.

Education

Libraries: Los Angeles Public Library is dedicated.

Arts and Letters

Literature: William Faulkner (1897-1962) publishes his first novel, "Soldier’s Pay."

Arts and Letters

Painting: Georgia O’Keeffe (1887-1986) paints “Black Iris,” and abstract work in which the flowers assume human anatomical shapes.

Ideas

T.H. Morgan (1866-1945) publishes "Theory of the Gene."

Ideas

Edward L. Thorndike (1874-1949) publishes "Measurement of Intelligence."

Daily Life

Explorers Richard E. Byrd (1888-1957) and Floyd Bennett (1890-1928) fly over the North Pole.

Daily Life

Airmail service starts between New York City and Boston.

Sports

H. Bierkottes swims the English Channel in 12 hours and 4 minutes.

Sports

Women’s Firsts: American Gertrude Ederle (1906-2003) becomes the first woman to swim across the English Channel.

Popular Culture

Writer Edna Ferber (1887-1968) publishes "Show Boat."

Popular Culture

English filmmaker, Alfred Hitchcock (1899-1980), known for his gripping thrillers, directs The Lodger.

Law

Civil Rights Movement: The Supreme Court rules that a Texas law forbidding Negroes from voting in Democratic primary elections is unconstitutional.

Politics

A Socialist uprising and a general strike occurs in Vienna, Austria, after acquittal of Nazis for political murder.

Government

League of Nations: The Spanish Government announces that it will continue to collaborate in the work of the League.

War

U.S. Marines land in Nicaragua to protect U.S. lives and property during civil war.

Science

Jan Hendrik Oort (1900-1992), Dutch astronomer, further clarifies Lindblad’s theory about the rotation of the Milky Way galaxy.

Science

Clinton Davisson (1881-1958) and Lester Germer (1896-1971) discover that electrons are diffracted when they pass through crystal. This discovery supports the wave theory of electric behavior.

Medicine

Frank A. Hartman isolates “cortin” from the adrenal glands and suggests that absence of this hormone may cause Addison’s disease.

Medicine

Vaccines: First vaccine for Tuberculosis is used.

Inventions

The History of Toys: A tough, durable kind of plastic, polystyrene, is invented. Although the first plastic, celluloid, was invented in the 1860s, polystyrene is the first type strong enough to really suit toy making.

Inventions

The pentode (a 5-element vacuum tube) is developed. It permits distortion free amplification of sound.

Technology

Ernst Alexanderson (1878-1975) receives the first American television broadcast at his home.

Education

Libraries: The Central library of the Free Library of Philadelphia is dedicated.

Ideas

Pavlov (1849-1936) publishes "Conditioned Reflexes," based on his experiments in which dogs, fed at the sound of a bell, salivated at the sound of the bell alone.

Ideas

Cosmologist Georges Lemaitre (1894-1966) proposes the Big Bang Theory to explain the origin of the universe.

Tyler, Julia

David Gardiner "Gardie" Tyler (1846-1927), the first son born to John Tyler and his second wife Julia, dies September 5.

Economics

The Federal Reserve reduces the discount rate by half a point and purchases $230 million of government securities.

Daily Life

Transatlantic commercial telephone service begins between New York City and London.

Daily Life

Herbert Hoover (1874-1964), then U.S. Secretary of Commerce, gives a speech in Washington, D.C. that is seen and heard in New York via the first long-distance television transmission.

Daily Life

Charles Lindbergh (1902-1974) makes the first solo, non-stop flight across the Atlantic in the Spirit of Saint Louis, from Long Island to Paris.

Daily Life

The Holland Tunnel, designed by Clifford M. Holland, opens to vehicular traffic. More than 1.5 miles long, the tunnel travels under the Hudson River and connects New York with New Jersey.

Sports

Baseball: Babe Ruth (1895-1948) sets home run record when he hits 60 for the season.

Sports

Boxing: The first Golden Gloves amateur boxing matches, sponsored by the New York Daily News, are held.

Sports

Women in Sports: The International Federation of Women's Field Hockey Associations (IFWHA) is formed to provide competition for teams from the US, England, Scotland and Ireland.

Popular Culture

The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences is founded.

Popular Culture

Bandleader and composer, Duke Ellington (1899-1974), organizes a band that begins a five-year stand at Harlem’s Cotton Club.

Religion

Cecil B. DeMille (1881-1959) produces his second Biblical epic called "The King of Kings."

Politics

Herbert Hoover (1874-1964) is elected the 31st President of the U.S., and Charles Curtis (1860-1936) is elected as the nation's 31st Vice President.

Government

McNary-Haugen Bill for relief of farmers is vetoed on the grounds that it would fix prices and stimulate overproduction.

Government

Flood Control Bill provides $325 million to curb flooding in the Mississippi River Valley.

Government

Prohibition: Congress appropriates $32 million to enforce Prohibition during the next year.

Government

Britain recognizes the Chinese National government at Nanking.

War

U.S. signs Briand-Kellogg Act Pact, outlawing war. Eventually, 63 nations sign it also.

Science

Karl Ziegler (1898-1973) explains the chemical procedure for making artificial rubber.

Medicine

Sir Alexander Fleming (1881-1955) discovers penicillin, founding the field of antibiotic therapy.

Inventions

Railroad History: The first Diesel-electric passenger locomotive built in North America was a two-unit 2-D-1-1-D-2.

Technology

Mount Palomar Observatory installs a 200-inch reflecting telescope designed by George Hale (1868-1938).

Education

Libraries: The West Virginia Supreme Court rules that Charleston libraries cannot exclude black patrons since, as taxpayers, they are equally entitled to library service.

Ideas

John Von Neumann (1903-1957) develops as part of his theory games, the minimax theorem, a strategy for minimizing a player’s maximum loss.

Daily Life

The first seeing eye dog was presented to Morris S. Frank.

Daily Life

The History of Toys: The Mickey Mouse character is created by Walt Disney.

Popular Culture

The first annual Calaveras County “Frog Jumping Jubilee” is held in Angel’s Camp, CA.

Popular Culture

Jerome Kern (1885-1945) and Hammerstein (1895-1960) write the score for Show Boat, which includes the song “Ol’ Man River.”

Politics

The National Revolutionary Party is organized in Mexico; it becomes the chief political party.

Government

The Lateran Treaty, in which Italy agrees to recognize the independence and sovereignty of Vatican City, is signed.

Government

Immigration: The National origins plan goes into effect. U.S. consuls are told to reject any immigrant who might become a “public charge.”

Government

The Agriculture Marketing Act establishes the Federal Farm Board to stabilize farm prices.

Government

Herbert Hoover (1874-1964) is inaugurated as the 31st President of the U.S., and Charles Curtis (1860-1936) is inaugurated as the nation's 31st Vice President.

Science

Nobel Prize for Physics goes to Broglie (1892-1987) for his electron wave theory.

Science

Hubble measures the red shift and discovers that the galaxies are moving away from each other. This universal recession of galaxies indicates that the universe is expanding.

Medicine

Hans Berger (1873- 1941) discovers human electroencephalography.

Technology

Ernst Alaxanderson (1878-1975) measures the altitude of an airplane by using reflected radio waves. This is an early use of radar.

Technology

Kodak introduces 16mm movie film.

Technology

In the first instrument flight, Lt. James Doolittle (1896-1993) flies entirely by radio signals received in his airplane.

Education

Higher Education: University of Pennsylvania establishes a department of Medical Physics (biophysics).

Education

Libraries: Julius Rosenwald (1862-1932), a merchant and philanthropist, helps fund libraries in 13 southern states to be used in both urban and rural areas, regardless of race.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Ernest Hemingway (1899-1961) publishes the novel "A Farewell to Arms."

Ideas

Virginia Woolf (1882-1941) publishes “A Room of One’s Own.”

Ideas

Robert M. Yerkes (1876-1956), psychologist, publishes "The Great Apes" and establishes the Yale Laboratories of Primate Biology (Florida) to study animal behavior and intelligence.

Hoover, Lou

Herbert Hoover (1874-1964) was the first president to have a telephone installed on his desk on March 27. White House phones came next.

Kennedy, Jackie

Jacqueline Bouvier is born on July 28, 2919 in Southhampton, New York. She is the eighth of ten First Ladies born in New York, the "mother state" of presidential wives.

Economics

American Money: Currency is reduced in size by 25 percent and standardizes with uniform portraits on the faces and emblems and monuments on the backs.

Economics

President Hoover (1874-1964) meets with important businessmen at the White House in order to stabilize the nation’s business.

Economics

The stock market crash brings depression, with widespread unemployment and many business failures.

Daily Life

Crime and Punishment: Gang members working for Al Capone (1899-1947) kill rival gang members in the St. Valentine’s Day massacre in Chicago.

Daily Life

The first reindeer are born in the United States, in North Beverly, MA.

Daily Life

The History of Toys: The yo-yo is popularized in the United States.

Sports

Women in Sports: Tuskegee Institute in Alabama forms one of the first women's college track teams, offering scholarships to promising women athletes, and adding women's event to their Tuskegee relays track meets.

Popular Culture

The first Academy Awards are bestowed; the statues that served as symbols of the award are not called Oscars until 1931.

Popular Culture

The first all-color talking picture, "On With the Show," opens.

Popular Culture

“Amos ‘n’ Andy,” a popular radio show heard each weekday through the 1930’s, makes its national premier.

Religion

Presbyterian churches in Scotland unite to form the Church of Scotland.

Social Issues

Immigration: Congress makes annual immigration quotas permanent.

Law

Chief Justices: President Herbert Hoover nominates Charles Evans Hughes (1862-1948) as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court; he is confirmed by the Senate ten days later and serves in the position for eleven years.

Law

The Supreme Court rules that buying bootleg liquor is not a violation of the 18th amendment.

Politics

In the German elections, Nazis gain 107 seats from the center parties.

Government

The Passfield White Paper on Palistine suggests that Jewish immigration be halted.

Government

The names of the cities of Constantinople and Angora in Turkey change to Istanbul and Ankara.

Government

Ras Tafari (1892-1975) becomes Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia.

Government

League of Nations: First session of the Commission of Enquiry for European Union.

War

France begins building the Maginot Line.

War

Last Allied troops leave Rhineland.

War

The War Department amends Army regulations to make any violation of the federal prohibition law a military offense.

Medicine

Nobel Prize for Medicine awarded to Karl Landsteiner (1868-1943) (U.S.) for the grouping of human blood.

Inventions

Vannevar Bush, electrical engineer, develops a differential analyzer, the first analog computer.

Inventions

Quartz-crystal clocks are introduced.

Technology

Bell Laboratories develops a two-way television communication system.

Technology

The photoflash bulb comes into use.

Education

Public Education: Civil Rights Movement: The NAACP brings a series of suits over unequal teachers' pay for Blacks and whites in southern states. At the same time, southern states realize they are losing African American labor to the northern cities. These two sources of pressure resulted in some increase of spending on Black schools in the South.

Education

Civil Rights Movment: Brown v. Board: The NAACP began to challenge segregation in graduate and secondary schools in the mid-1930s. Early successes in the Supreme Court barred law schools from denying applicants on the basis of race alone.

Arts and Letters

American Theatre: The Group Theatre is formed by the Theatre Guild for the purpose of producing social protest works. Members were generally committed to largely communal projects.

Arts and Letters

Drama: Maxwell Anderson (1888-1959)writes “Elizabeth the Queen."

Arts and Letters

Drama: Noel Coward (1899-1973) writes “Private Lives."

Ideas

Technocracy, the absolute domination of technology, becomes talked-of phenomenon.

Ideas

Albert Einstein (1879-1955)writes “About Zionism.”

Ideas

Compton suggests that cosmic rays are made of particles.

Ideas

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)publishes “Civilization and Its Discontent."

Taft, Helen

William Howard Taft (1857-1930), 27th President of the United States dies; he is the first U.S. president to be buried in the National Cemetery in Arlington, VA.

Economics

New York City’s Bank of the United States closes because of the stock market crash. The bank has 60 branches and almost half a million depositors. During this year more than 1300 banks are forced to close.

Economics

Ford creates the Mercury division to establish a division centered on mid-priced cars. Ford Motor Company continues to grow.

Discovery

Pluto, the ninth planet in the solar system, is discovered by American astronomer Clyde Tombaugh (1906-1997).

Daily Life

Prepackaged frozen food is sold for the first time by Clarence Birdseye (1886-1956) in Springfield, MA.

Daily Life

Contract bridge gains in popularity as a card game.

Daily Life

Comic strips grow in popularity in the U.S. (“Blondie” series).

Popular Culture

Dashiell Hammett (1894-1961) writes “The Maltese Falcon."

Popular Culture

The films “Blue Angel,” (Marlene Dietrich (1901-1992))and “All Quiet on the Western Front,” both win Academy Awards (Milestone).

Popular Culture

Bestseller “Cimarron,” is written by Edna Ferber (1885-1968).

Politics

German millionaire Alfred Hugenberg (1865-1951) undertakes to support the 800,000-strong Nazi Party; Emil Kirdorf (1847-1938), Fritz Thyssen (1873-1951), and Schroder (1841-1902) follow his example.

Government

League of Nations: The Council decides to convene the Conference for the Reduction and Limitation of Armaments.

Government

League of Nations: European Conference for Limiting the Manufacture and Regulating the Distribution of Narcotic Drugs.

Science

Swiss chemist Paul Karrer (1889-1971) isolates vitamin A.

Science

American physicist E.O. Lawrence (1901-1958) invents the cyclotron.

Inventions

Julius A. Nieuwland (1878-1936) devises a process for producing neoprene, a synthetic rubber.

Technology

The Empire State Building opens.

Technology

The George Washington Bridge, extending from New Jersey to New York, is completed.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Pearl S. Buck (1892-1973) writes “The Good Earth."

Arts and Letters

Poetry: Robert Frost (1874-1963) publishes his “Collected Poems,” which wins the Pulitzer Prize.

Arts and Letters

Drama: Eugene O’Neill (1888-1953) writes “Morning Becomes Electra.”

Ideas

John Dewey (1859-1952 ) publishes “Philosophy and Civilization.”

Discovery

Australian explorer G.H. Wilkins (1888-1958) captains “Nautilus” submarine, navigating it under the Arctic Ocean to latitude 82 degrees, 15 minutes.

Daily Life

The U.S. officially adopts “The Star-Spangled Banner” as its national anthem on March 3.

Daily Life

Crime and Punishment: Alphonse (“Scarface”) Capone (1899-1947), gangster with reputed $20 million annual income, is jailed for income tax evasion.

Daily Life

Population (in millions): China 410, India 338, U.S.S.R. 168, U.S. 122, Japan 75, Germany 64, Great Britain 46.

Daily Life

Women’s Firsts: Maxine Dunlap becomes first American woman to earn a glider pilot license.

Daily Life

The History of Toys: Alfred M. Butts, an unemployed architect from Poughkeepsie, New York, invents a word game called the Criss Cross Game. In 1948, Butts sells rights to the game to entrepreneur James Brunot who trademarks the game under the name Scrabble.

Sports

The northern face of the Matterhorn is climbed for the first time by Franz and Toni Schmid.

Sports

Women in Sports: Women begin competing in skiing events at the world championships sponsored by the International Ski Federation.

Popular Culture

Popular songs of the year include “Minnie the Moocher”; “Mood Indigo”; Goodnight Sweetheart”; and “When the Moon Comes Over the Mountain.”

Popular Culture

Charlie Chaplin (1889-1977) stars in the film, “City Lights."

Popular Culture

Walt Disney (1901-1996) produces his first color film, "Flowers and Trees."

Popular Culture

The musical comedy, "Of Thee I Sing," composed and written by George Gershwin (1898-1937), Ira Gershwin (1896-1983) George S. Kaufman (1889-1961), and Morrie Ryskind (1895-1985), becomes the first musical to win the Pulitzer Prize for drama.

Religion

Jehovah’s Witnesses formed from International Bible Students Association.

Religion

Pope Pius XI (1857-1939): “Quadrigesimo Anno," encyclical noting dangers of unrestrained capitalism and totalitarian communism, and calling for a new social order.

Law

The Twentieth Amendment to the Constitution, setting January 20 as the day the President is inaugurated, is passed by Congress.

Politics

Women's Firsts: Hattie W. Caraway (1878-1932), a democrat from Arkansas, becomes the first woman to be elected to the U.S. Senate.

Politics

Running on the idea of a "New Deal" for the American people, Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945) is elected as the 32nd President of the U.S. in a Democratic landslide; John Garner (1868-1967) is elected as the nation's 32nd Vice President.

Government

The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) is created to conserve area resources.

Government

League of Nations: A two-year Conference for the Reduction and Limitation of Armaments opens in Geneva; Germany withdraws from the Conference.

Government

The Revenue Act of 1932 is passed; it is the largest peacetime tax increase in the nation''s history to that date.

Government

Women’s Firsts: Hattie Wyatt Caraway (1878-1950), of Arkansas, becomes the first woman elected to the U.S. Senate.

Government

Congress changes the name "Porto Rico" to "Puerto Rico".

Science

W.H. Carothers (U.S.) (1896-1937) synthesizes polyamide (nylon by 1936).

Science

James Chadwick (1891-1974) discovers the neutron.

Science

Nobel Prize for Physics: Werner Heisenberg (Germany) for the creation of the matrix theory of quantum mechanics.

Science

Fritz Mietzch (1896-1958) and Josef Klarer (1898-1953): sulfonamide.

Inventions

Sperry Gyroscope Co. develops an automatic pilot.

Technology

A balloon tire is produced for farm tractors.

Technology

RCA demonstrates electric TV using a cathode-ray picture tube receiver.

Education

Libraries: The Folger Library opens in Washington.

Education

Higher Education: Bennington College opens in Vermont.

Education

Basic English is proposed as a prospective international language.

Education

Public Education: A survey of 150 school districts reveals that three quarters of them are using so-called intelligence testing to place students in different academic tracks.

Education

Libraries: Howard University School of Divinity Library is founded.

Economics

In May and June, 17,000 ex-servicemen arrive in Washington D.C., to urge the passage of a law that will permit them to cash their bonus certificates; this bill is defeated by the Senate; government offers expenses for return home, but troops led by General Douglas MacArthur (1880-1964) finally drive out last 2,000.

Economics

13.7 million people are unemployed in the United States.

Economics

The first unemployment insurance law is enacted in Wisconsin.

Daily Life

Crime and punishment: The infant son of Charles (1902-1974) and Anne Lindbergh (1906-2001) is kidnapped.

Daily Life

Women''s Firsts: Amelia Earhart (1897-1937) becomes the first woman to complete a solo nonstop transatlantic flight, from Newfoundland to Ireland in about 15 hours.

Daily Life

Women''s Firsts: Amelia Earhart, 34, becomes the first woman to fly solo across the Atlantic in a red Lockheed Vega in 15 hours and 39 minutes.

Sports

Black Athletes: Louise Stokes (1905-1974) and Tydia Pickett are the first African-American women to be included on a U.S. Olympic team.

Sports

The first Winter Olympic Games held in the U.S., opens at Lake Placid, N.Y.

Sports

The Summer Olympic Games at Los Angeles include 23 sports, 124 events, and 1,408 participants from 37 nations.

Popular Culture

Johnny Weissmuller (1904-1984) appears in his first “Tarzan” film; Dashiell Hammett (1894-1961) writes “The Thin Man;" and Aldous Huxley (1894-1963) writes “Brave New World.”

Reform

Women''s Rights Movement: The National Recovery Act forbids more than one family member from holding a government job, resulting in many women losing their jobs.

Law

Prohibition: The Twenty-First Amendment to the Constitution, repealing prohibition, is passed by Congress, ratified by two-thirds of the states and added to the Constitution.

Law

The 20th Amendment to the Constitution, setting January 20 as the day the President is inaugurated, is ratified by two-thirds of the states and added to the Constitution.

Government

U.S. Congress votes independence for Philippines.

Government

The Federal Securities Act requires sworn statements about all securities for sale to be filed with the Federal Trade Commission (FTC).

Government

League of Nations: Both Germany and Japan give notice of withdrawal from the League of Nations.

Government

Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945) is inaugurated as the 32nd President of the U.S., and John Garner (1868-1967) is inaugurated as the nation's 32nd Vice President.

Government

Women’s Firsts: Frances Perkins (1882-1965) is appointed secretary of labor by President Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), making her the first woman member of a presidential cabinet.

Government

Adolph Hitler (1889-1945) is named Chancellor of Germany.

Science

Tadeusz Reichstein (1897-1996) synthesizes pure vitamin C.

Science

Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) recognized by R. Kuhn, Szent-Gyorgyi, and Wagner von Jauregg.

Medicine

Manfred Sakel (1900-1957) discovers insulin shock therapy.

Technology

Edwin H. Armstrong (1890-1954) develops frequency modulation (FM) radio broadcasting.

Technology

Philo T. Farnsworth (1906-1971) develops an electronic TV receiver.

Arts and Letters

“Ulysses,” by James Joyce (1882-1941), is allowed in the U.S. after court ruling.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Erskine Caldwell (1903-1987)writes “God’s Little Acre.”

Arts and Letters

George Balanchine (1904-1983) and Lincoln Kirstein (1907-1996) found the School of American Ballet.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Gertrude Stein (1874-1946) writes “The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas.”

Ideas

C.G. Jung (1875-1961) writes “Modern Man in Search of Soul.”

Economics

American banks are closed March 6 - March 9 by presidential order.

Economics

The U.S. goes off gold standard on April 19.

Economics

Unlike his father, Edsel Ford was more interested in vehicle design than mechanics. He helped bring the company''s products to new heights of elegance and style by creating the company’s first dedicated, in-house design (or “styling”) department. The department’s creations become some of the most influential automotive designs in the industry.

Discovery

The theory that Neanderthal Man is in the line of decent of homo sapiens is rejected following the discovery of the Steinheim skull.

Discovery

R.E. Byrd, begins his second South Pole expedition.

Daily Life

The board game Monopoly is invented.

Daily Life

All books by non-Nazi and Jewish authors are burned in Germany.

Daily Life

Chicago World’s Fair (A Century of Progress International Exposition) opens.

Daily Life

President Roosevelt delivers the first radio “fireside chat” to restore the public’s confidence in the American currency and banking system.

Sports

Baseball: The first baseball all-star game is played.

Sports

Boxing: Italian Primo Carnera (1906-1967) knocks out Jack Sharkey (1902-1994) to win heavyweight-boxing crown.

Popular Culture

Some popular films of the year are “Little Women,” starring Katherine Hepburn (1907-2003), and “She Done Him Wrong,” starring Mae West (1892-1980).

Popular Culture

Some popular songs are “Smoke Gets in Your Eyes”; “StormyWeather”; “Easter Parade”; “Who’s Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf?”; and “Boulevard of Broken Dreams.”

Social Issues

Holocaust: The Germans at Dachau open the first concentration camp; by 1945 8 to 10 million prisoners have been interned and at least half of them killed. Boycott of Jews begins in Germany.

Social Issues

Immigration: Approximately 60,000 artists (authors, actors, painters, and musicians) emigrate from Germany.

Government

Congress passes the Gold Reserve Act, empowering the President to regulate the value of the U.S. dollar.

Government

President Roosevelt signs Securities Exchange Act, establishing Securities and Exchange Commission. The first chairman of the SEC is Joseph Kennedy.

Government

League of Nations: Meeting of the General Commission of the Conference for the Reduction and Limitation of Armaments.

Science

Adolph Butenandt (1903-1995) isolates the first crystalline male hormone, androsterone.

Science

Enrico Fermi (1901-1954 ) suggests that neutrons and protons are the same fundamental particles in two different quantum states.

Technology

Osoviakhim, U.S.S.R. balloon, ascends 13 miles into stratosphere.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Robert Graves (1895-1985) writes “I, Claudius” and “Claudius the God.”

Arts and Letters

Painting: Salvador Dali (1904-1989) paints “William Tell,” in surrealistic style.

Arts and Letters

Drama: William Saroyan (1908-1981) writes “The Daring Young Man on the Flying Trapeze.”

Ideas

Arnold Toynbee (1889-1975) writes “A Study of History.”

Ideas

Ruth Benedict (1887-1948) publishes “Patterns of Culture.

Economics

Women’s Firsts: Lettie Pate Whitehead (1872-1953) becomes the first American woman to serve as a director of a major corporation, The Coca-Cola Company.

Discovery

Women’s Firsts: On October 23, 1934, American adventurer Jeanette Piccard (1895 – 1985) sets an altitude record for female balloonists when she ascends 57,579 feet.

Daily Life

Transportation: The S.S. “Normandie” (France) launched; the largest ship afloat until “Queen Elizabeth.”

Daily Life

The Dionne quintuplets are born in Callendar, Ontario.

Daily Life

Crime and Punishment: The F.B.I. shoots John Dillinger (1903-1934), “Public Enemy No. 1.”

Daily Life

Crime and Punishment: The infamous pair of Bonnie (Parker) (1910-1934) and Clyde (Barrow) (1909-1934), die in a police shootout.

Sports

Golf: The first Masters golf tournament at Augusta National in Georgia is won by Horton Smith (1908-1963).

Sports

Boxing: Max Baer (1909-1959) wins world heavyweight boxing title.

Sports

Boxing: Joe Louis (1914-1981) wins his first fight against Jack Kracken (Chicago).

Popular Culture

Shirley Temple (1928- ) stars in her first film, Stand Up and Cheer.

Social Issues

Poverty: Evangeline Booth (1865-1950), daughter of the Salvation Army’s founder, elected General of the Salvation Army.

Politics

Huey Long (1893-1935) is assassinated by Dr. Carl Weiss in Louisiana Capitol Building.

Government

The Social Security Act establishes a federal payroll tax to finance a cooperative federal-state system of unemployment insurance.

Government

President Roosevelt (1882-1945) signs U.S. Social Security Act.

Government

Chiang Kai-shek is named President of China.

Government

T.G. Masaryk (1850-1937) resigns as President of Czechoslovakiaand is succeeded by Eduard Benes (1884-1948).

Government

Persia changes its name to Iran.

Government

League of Nations: The American Senate refuses to ratify the accession of the United States to the Permanent Court of International justice.

War

World War II: The Saarland is incorporated into Germany following a plebiscite; Nazis repudiate Versailles Treaty and reintroduce compulsory military.

Medicine

Ladislas J. Meduna (1896-1964)discovers metrazol shock therapy.

Medicine

German chemist Gerhard Domagk (1895-1964) announces the discovery of Prontosil, the first sulfa drug for treating streptococcal infections.

Technology

RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging) is first demonstrated by Robert Watson-Watt (1892-1973).

Technology

The first round-the-world telephone conversation covers more than 23,000 miles. It is routed from New York to San Francisco, Indonesia, Holland, England, and back to NY-to an office less than 50 feet from the phone where the call originated.

Technology

Railroad History: EMC builds #511 and #512, the first self-contained Diesel passenger locomotives in the US.

Education

Libraries: The Works Progress Administration library service program gives support in labor and funds to all types of libraries.

Arts and Letters

American Theatre: The Federal Theatre Project is established by Works Progress Administration (WPA) under the leadership of Hallie Flanagan (1890-1969). It lasted 4 years and employed over 30,000 theatrical artists and workers. Eventually Congress challenged the content of the productions as being subversive propaganda and dangerous.

Arts and Letters

Drama: Clarence Day (1874-1935) writes “Life with Father.”

Arts and Letters

Drama: T.S. Eliot (1888-1965) writes “Murder in the Cathedral.”

Arts and Letters

Literature: Sinclair Lewis (1885-1951) writes “It Can’t Happen Here.”

Arts and Letters

Literature: John Steinbeck (1902-1968) writes “Tortilla Flat.”

Economics

Electrification: The first generator at Hoover Dam along the Nevada-Arizona border begins commercial operation.

Daily Life

Crime and Punishment: Bruno R. Hauptmann (1899-1936) goes on trial for the kidnap and murder of the Lindburgh baby.

Daily Life

Amelia Earhart (1897-1937) becomes the first person to fly solo from Hawaii to California.

Daily Life

Transportation: The S.S. “Normandie” crosses the Atlantic in 107 hours and 33 minutes.

Daily Life

Dancing: The rumba becomes a fashionable dance.

Daily Life

Alcoholics Anonymous is organized in New York.

Sports

Baseball: The Cincinnati Reds and the Philadelphia Phillies play the first major league night baseball game at Crosley Field I Cincinnati.

Reform

Labor Movement: The Committee for Industrial Organizations is founded by the leaders of eight unions in the American Federation of Labor (AFL). Its goal is to develop industry-wide unions that include clerical and unskilled workers, as well as skilled-workers who are eligible for the AFL.

Law

The Supreme Court upholds constitutionality of TVA in Ashwander v. Tennessee Valley Authority.

Politics

Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882-1945) is reelected President of the U.S. by a landslide, as is John Garner (1868-1967) as Vice President.

Government

League of Nations: The Secretariat moves into the new League of Nations buildings, Geneva.

War

The U.S. Army adopts the semi-automatic rifle.

War

World War II: German troops occupy Rhineland; elections in Germany give Hitler (1889-1945) 99% of the vote; Four-Year Plan inaugurated.

War

Spanish Civil War begins in July; Franco appointed Chief of State by the insurgents in October; siege of Madrid begins; Spanish government moves to Valencia.

War

World War II: Chiang Kai-shek (1887-1975) declares war on Japan.

Medicine

Dr. Alexis Carrel (1873-1944) develops an artificial heart.

Medicine

Egas Moniz (1874-1955) discovers prefrontal lobotomy for treating mental diseases.

Technology

The dirigible “Hindenburg” lands at Lakehurst, N.J., after transatlantic flight.

Technology

Mrs. Amy (Johnson) Mollison (1903-1941) flies from England to Cape Town in 3 days, 6 hours, and 25 minutes.

Technology

Boulder (Hoover) Dam on Colorado River in Nevada and Arizona is completed; this creates Lake Mead, the largest reservoir in the world.

Arts and Letters

Drama: Beatrice Kaufman and Moss Hart collaborate on the play, “You Can’t Take it With You.”

Economics

The Ford Foundation is established.

Daily Life

Magazines: Henry Luce (1898-1967) begins publication of “Life” magazine.

Daily Life

Crime and Punishment: Bruno Richard Hauptman (1899-1936) is convicted of kidnapping and killing the Lindbergh baby.

Daily Life

Disasters: Floods sweep Johnstown, Pennsylvania.

Daily Life

The History of Toys: Parker Brothers introduce Monopoly.

Sports

Baseball: Ty Cobb (1886-1961), Babe Ruth (1895-1948), Honus Wagner (1874-1955), Christy Mathewson (1880-1925) and Walter Johnson (1887-1946) are the first players elected to the newly founded Baseball Hall of Fame in Cooperstown, New York.

Sports

Boxing: Max Schmeling (1905-2005) (German) defeats Joe Louis (1914-1981) (U.S.) to win world heavyweight boxing championship.

Popular Culture

Dale Carnegie (1888-1955) writes “How to Win Friends and Influence People.”

Popular Culture

Walter D. Edmunds (1903-1998) writes “Drums Along the Mohawk.”

Popular Culture

Margaret Mitchell (1900-1949) writes “Gone with the Wind,” a Pulitzer Prize Novel.

Law

Women's Rights Movement: The U.S. Supreme Court rules in favor of a minimum wage law for women.

Government

Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882-1945) is inaugurated President of the U.S., as is John Garner as Vice President.

Government

President Roosevelt (1882-1945) signs U.S. Neutrality Act.

War

World War II: Riots in Sudeten area of Czechoslovakia; Sudetan Germans leave Czech Parliament.

War

Spanish Civil War: The German Luftwaffe (air force) destroys the Spanish town of Guernica.

Medicine

The nation’s first blood bank is established at Cook County Hospital in Chicago.

Medicine

Crystalline vitamin A and vitamin K concentrates are first obtained.

Medicine

The National Cancer institute is established.

Inventions

Wallace H. Carothers (1896-1937) patents Nylon for the Du Pont Company.

Inventions

The first jet engine is built by Frank Whittle (1907-1996).

Technology

George VI (1895-1952) is crowned King of Great Britain; the broadcast of ceremonies is first worldwide program heard in the U.S.

Technology

The Lincoln Tunnel provides a second major vehicular tunnel between New York and New Jersey.

Technology

San Francisco’s Gold Gate Bridge opens; the main section is 4200 ft. long; it is the longest bridge up to this time.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Ernest Hemmingway (1899-1961) writes “To Have and to Have Not.”

Arts and Letters

Literature: John P. Marquand (1893-1960) writes “The Late George Apley,” which wins a Pulitzer Prize.

Arts and Letters

Painting: Picasso (1881-1973) paints “Guernica,” a mural for the Paris World Exhibition.

Arts and Letters

Paul Mellon (1907-1999) endows the National Gallery in Washington, D.C.

Economics

Wall Street stock market decline signals serious economic recession in the U.S.

Daily Life

In Connecticut, automobile license places are issued for the first time.

Daily Life

Disasters: The German airship Hindenberg bursts into flames as it is trying to land at Lakehurst, NJ. News of its occurrence is described in the first transcontinental radio broadcast.

Daily Life

Amelia Earhart (1897-1937) is lost on a Pacific flight.

Sports

Boxing: Joe Louis (1914-1981) regains world heavyweight boxing title by defeating James J. Braddock (1905-1974).

Sports

U.S. Tennis Team wins Davis Cup Tournament in England.

Sports

Women in Sports: The US becomes the first country to win the men's (Swaythling Cup) and women's (Marcel Corbillon Cup) team table tennis championships in the same year.

Popular Culture

John Steinbeck (1902-1968) writes “Of Mice and Men.”

Popular Culture

Walt Disney (1901-1996) produces “Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs."

Social Issues

Poverty: Public Housing: One of the first public housing projects in New York City, the Harlem River Houses, is built. They were 4 and 5-story walk-ups that were connected.

Reform

Women''s Rights Movement: Minimum wage law for women is upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court.

Reform

Labor Movement: A major strike against Republic Steel takes place: 4 killed and 84 injured in Chicago.

Law

Civil Rights Movement: The Supreme Court rules that the University of Missouri Law School must admit Negroes because of a lack of other facilities in the area.

Government

Martin Dies (1900-1972) (Texas Democrat), becomes chairman of the newly formed House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) of U.S. House of Representatives.

War

World War II: Hitler (1889-1945) appoints himself War Minister, Ribbentrop Foreign Minister; meets Schuschnigg at Berchtesgaden and marches into Austria; Mussolini (1883-1945) and Hitler meet in Rome; programs in Germany.

War

World War II: Eden resigns in protest against Chamberlain’s (1869-1940) policy; Winston Churchill (1874-1965) leads country’s outcry; Duff Cooper (1890-1954) resigns as First Lord of the Admiralty; President Benes (1884-1948) resigns; Slovakia and Ruthenia granted autonomy; Hungary annexes southern Slovakia; Emil Hacha (1872-1945) installed as puppet President of Czechoslovakia.

Science

Karter, Salomon, and Fritzsche chemically identify vitamin E.

Science

Isolation of pyridoxine (vitamin B6).

Medicine

Robert E. Gross, physician, surgically repairs a congenital heart defect.

Medicine

Ugo Cerletti (1877- 1963) and Lucio Bini (1908-1964) discover electroconvulsive therapy.

Education

Civil Rights Movement: Higher Education: The U.S. Supreme Court rules that the University of Missouri Law School must admit Negroes because of a lack of other facilities in the area.

Education

The Cloisters, endowed by Rockefeller (1839-1937), is built in upper Manhattan as a branch of the Metropolitan Museum to house medieval art.

Education

Higher Education: Education of Women: African American Education: Harvard University grants and honorary doctorate to Negro singer Marian Anderson (1897-1993).

Arts and Letters

Drama: "Our Town," by Thornton Wilder (1897-1975), is performed publicly for the first time in Princeton, NJ.

Arts and Letters

Daphne du Maurier (1907-1989) writes “Rebecca.”

Arts and Letters

Drama: Robert Sherwood (1896-1955): “Abe Lincoln in Illinois."

Arts and Letters

Architecture: Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959) builds Taliesin West in Phoenix, Arizona.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings (1896-1953) writes “The Yearling,” a Pulitzer Prize novel.

Ideas

Johan Huizinga (1872-1945) writes “Homo Ludens.”

Ideas

Alfred North Whitehead (1861-1947) writes “Modes of Thought.”

Economics

Dupont markets the first nylon product-a toothbrush.

Economics

The Fair Labor Standards Act passed, enacting first national minimum wage law.

Daily Life

The 40 hour work week is established in the United States.

Daily Life

20,000 TV sets are in service in New York City.

Daily Life

The S.S. “Queen Elizabeth” is launched.

Daily Life

32,000 people die in auto accidents in the U.S.

Sports

Horse Racing: Eddie Arcado rides his first Kentucky Derby winner, “Lawrin.”

Popular Culture

The New Orleans jazz classic, "When the Saints Go Marching In," is recorded by Louis Armstrong (1901-1971).

Popular Culture

The popular radio quiz show Information Please is broadcast by NBC.

Popular Culture

Orson Welles’s (1915- 1985) radio production of H.G. Well’s (1866-1946) “War of the Worlds” causes considerable panic.

Popular Culture

Benny Goodman’s (1909-1986) band brings new style to jazz music.

Popular Culture

Kurt Weill (1900-1950): “Knickerbocker Holiday,” musical comedy, New York.

Social Issues

Anti-semitism: Anti-Jewish legislation enacted in July.

Reform

Labor Movement: Women''s Rights Movement: The Fair Labor Standards Act establishes minimum wage without regard to sex.

Law

President Roosevelt appoints the first Jewish Associate Justice to the Supreme Court, Felix Frankfurter (1882-1965); at the same time, he appoints William O. Douglas (1898-1980), who hold the record for longest service on the Court -- 36 years, 7 months.

War

The Spanish Civil War ends.Rooseveltasks Congress for $552 million for defense and demands assurance from Hitler and Mussolini that they will not attack 31 named states.

War

World War II: Germany occupies Bohemia and Moravia, places Slovakia under “protection,” annexes Memel, renounces nonaggression pact with Poland and naval agreement with England, and concludes both the 10-year alliance with Italy and the nonaggression pact with U.S.S.R.

War

World War II: Japanese occupy Hainan and blockade British concession at Tientsin; U.S. renounces Japanese trade agreement of 1911.

War

World War II: Britain and France recognize Franco’s government; U.S. recognition follows; Spanish Civil War ends; Spain joins Anti-Comintern Pact and leaves League of Nations.

War

World War II: Germany invades Poland and annexes Danzig on September 1; Britain and France declare war on Germany on September 3; Roosevelt declares that the U.S. is neutral; Germans overrun western Poland and reach Brest-Litovsk and Warsaw; U.S.S.R. invades Poland from the east; the British Expeditionary Force (158,000 men) are sent to France.

Science

Joliot-Curie demonstrates the possibility of splitting apart the atom.

Science

Polyethylene is invented.

Science

Nobel Prize for Physics awarded to Ernest O. Lawrence (U.S.) for the development of cyclotron.

Technology

Igor Sikorsky (1889-1972) constructs the first helicopter.

Technology

Radar stations are used in Britain to give early warning of approaching enemy aircrafts.

Arts and Letters

“Grandma Moses” (Anna M. Robertson) becomes famous in the U.S.

Arts and Letters

Dance: Aaron Copland’s “Billy the Kid” ballet opens in New York.

Arts and Letters

Literature: C.S. Forester writes “Captain Horatio Hornblower.”

Arts and Letters

Literature: James Joyce writes “Finnegan’s Wake.”

Arts and Letters

Literature: Richard Llewellyn writes “How Green was My Valley.”

Arts and Letters

Literature: John Steinbeck writes “The Grapes of Wrath.”

Arts and Letters

Drama: George S. Kaufman and Moss Hart write “The Man Who Came to Dinner.”

Ideas

John Dewey (1859-1952) publishes “Freedom and Culture.”

Ideas

Adolf Hitler’s “Mein Kampf” is made available in a complete English translation.

Economics

After the 1938 recession, the U.S. economy begins to recover and, by autumn, is booming from orders of European countries for arms and war equipment.

Daily Life

Transportation: Pan-American Airways begins regularly scheduled commercial flights between the U.S. and Europe on the “Dixie Clipper.”

Daily Life

Fashion: Nylon stockings appear for the first time.

Daily Life

Holidays: President Roosevelt moves the national Thanksgiving Celebration to the third Thursday of November in order to extend the Christmas shopping season and boost the economy.

Sports

Baseball: The first televised major league game is broadcast from Ebbets Field in Brooklyn.

Sports

Baseball: Little League Baseball is founded.

Sports

Baseball: Baseball great Lou Gehrig sets of major-league record when he plays his 2,130th game.A baseball game is first televised in the U.S.

Popular Culture

The first public television broadcast is made from the Empire State Building.

Popular Culture

War songs in England are “Roll out the Barrel’ and “The Last Time I Saw Paris.”

Popular Culture

Popular Films include “Gone With the Wind”, “The Wizard of Oz” (Judy Garland), and “Stagecoach” (John Ford).

Popular Culture

Popular Songs in America are “God Bless America”, “Over the Rainbow”, and “I’ll Never Smile Again.”

Religion

Pope Pius XI dies; Cardinal Eugenio Pacelli is elected to be Pope Pius XII (-1958).

Religion

The Methodist Church, rent by schisms of 1830 and 1844, is reunited.

Reform

Labor Movement: The U.S. Supreme Court rules that sit-down strikes are illegal.

Politics

Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945) is re-elected to a third term as President of the U.S., and Henry A. Wallace (1888-1965) is elected as the nation's 33rd Vice President.

Government

Stamps: Booker T. Washington (1856-1915) is the first African-American honored on a stamp.

Government

Immigration: The Smith Act (Alien Registration Act) requires the registration of all aliens and makes it illegal to advocate the overthrow of the U.S. government by force.

Government

Conservation: Congress establishes the Fish and Wildlife Service to develop and administer a wildlife conservation program.

Government

Neville Chamberlain (1869-1940) is succeeded by Winston Churchill (1874-1965) as Prime Minister of England.

Government

The U.S. does not renew its commercial treaty with Japan.

Government

The Transportation Act passes, giving ICC authority to regulate common carriers operating in interstate commerce in the coastal, inter-coastal, and inland waters of the U.S.

War

National Defense Advisory Commission coordinates U.S. civilian defense protection.

War

Congress creates the Selective Service System, the first U.S. peacetime program of compulsory military service. It requires all men between ages 21 and 36 to register.

Science

Fritz A. Lipmann (1899-1986), biochemist, proposes that ATP (adenosine tri-phosphate) is a common form of energy in many cells.

Medicine

N.M. Gregg discovers that German measles during pregnancy may cause birth defects in the unborn child.

Medicine

Linus Pauling (1901-1994) and Max Delbruck (1906-1981) determine that antigens cause the body to produce antibodies.

Inventions

V. Zworykin (1889-1982) and James Hillier (1915-) invent the electronic microscope.

Inventions

Hellmuth Walter (1900-1980), a German engineer, invents a propulsion system for submarines.

Education

The first large-scale urban college building of modern design, Hunter College, is built in New York City.

Arts and Letters

The Museum of Modern Art sets up a separate department of photography.

Arts and Letters

Painting: Picasso’s (1882-1973) lithograph, “Dove” is selected as the symbol of the World Peace Congress.

Discovery

Prehistoric drawings that are at least 20,000 years old are found in the Lascaux Caves in France.

Daily Life

The first social security check is issued to Ida Fuller for $22.54.

Daily Life

Fashion: Nylon stockings go on sale for the first time in the U.S.

Daily Life

The suspension bridge over the Narrows at Tacoma, Washington called “Galloping Gertie,” collapses because of wind vibration; the Bridge tumbles into Puget Sound.

Sports

Cornelius Warmerdam (1915-2001) is the first to pole-vault 15 feet. Two years later he sets the new record of 15 ft. 7.75 inches.

Popular Culture

Oglethorpe University (Georgia) deposits a bottle of beer, an encyclopedia, and a movie fan magazine along with 1000 of other items in its “Crypt of Civilization,” a time capsule scheduled to be opened in the year 8113.

Popular Culture

John Ford (1894-1973) wins an Oscar for directing "The Grapes of Wrath."

Reform

Labor Movement: The 40-hour workweek, part of Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, goes into effect.

Law

Chief Justices: After sixteen years of service as an Associate Justice, Harlan Fiske Stone (1872-1946) is nominated Chief Justice of the Supreme Court by President Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945); he is confirmed by the Senate and serves for five years until his death in 1946.

Government

The Lend-Lease Act passes, giving the president the authority to aid any nation whose defense he believed vital to the United States and to accept repayment "in kind or property, or any other direct or indirect benefit which the President deems satisfactory."

Government

Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945) is inaugurated for a third term as President of the U.S., and Henry A. Wallace (1888-1965) is inaugurated as the nation's 33rd Vice President.

Government

The Lend-Lease Act lends war materials to friendly nations.

Government

The Office of Price Administration and Civilian Supply is organized. It immediately freezes steel prices and later announces the need for tire rationing to conserve rubber.

War

Puerto Rico: US Congress establishes two thirds of the island of Vieques as a military training ground. Residents are given 24 hours to leave their homes.

War

The Selective Service System repeals the 900,000-man limitation of the Army and extends the length of service of draftees to 18 months.

War

U.S. lends the U.S.S.R. $1 billion worth of war material.

War

World War II: Japan attacks the U.S. Naval Base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, destroying many war ships; the U.S. declares war on Japan.

War

World War II: U.S. forces land in Iceland to defend it against possible attack.

Science

The Manhattan Project, under the direction of Leslie Groves, begins top-secret research to develop an atomic bomb.

Medicine

Women's Firsts: Eleanor J. Macdonald (1906-?1995), the first cancer epidemiologist, establishes the world’s first cancer registry in Connecticut.

Medicine

Radioactive iodine is used to treat cancer of the thyroid.

Inventions

Aerosol spray cans are introduced.

Technology

RCA develops the “alert receiver,” a radio that is turned on or off by a special radio wave signal.

Technology

LORAN (long range aid to navigation) uses fixed radio signals to determine positions at sea.

Technology

An electron microscope is used to obtain the first photograph of a virus. The virus, only 4 ten-millionths of an inch in diameter, is magnified 65,000 times.

Reagan, Nancy

Maureen Reagan Revell (1941-2001), daughter of Ronald and Nancy Reagan, is born January 4.

Economics

The FCC authorizes TV broadcasting. By the end of the year, 1 million sets are sold.

Daily Life

Gasoline curfew begins in 17 eastern states; gasoline stations are closed from 7am-7pm.

Daily Life

“Utility” clothing and furniture are encouraged in Britain; clothes rationing starts.

Daily Life

A National Nutrition Program begins; vitamins and minerals are added to milk, bread, and other common foods.

Daily Life

Holidays: After much protest, President Roosevelt returns the official Thansgiving to the fourth Thursday of November.

Sports

Baseball: New York Yankee center-fielder Joe DiMaggio (1914-1999) hits in 56 major league games and sets a major league record.

Popular Culture

The classic movie, "Citizen Kane," starring Orson Welles (1915-1985), premiers in New York City.

Popular Culture

The famous wartime phrase “Praise the Lord and pass the ammunition” is said by Howell M. Forgy, chaplain on the U.S. cruiser New Orleans, which is attacked at Pearl Harbor.

Popular Culture

Billy Strayhorn (1915-1967), arranger-composer for Duke Ellington, composes the band’s theme song, “Take the A-Train.”

Popular Culture

The USO is founded in New York City to raise the morale of American troops by supplying recreation, education, and entertainment.

Social Issues

Immigration: Japan’s surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii galvanizes America’s war effort. More than 1,000 Japanese-American community leaders are incarcerated because of national security.

Social Issues

Immigration: President Roosevelt signs Executive Order 8802, forbidding discrimination in federal hiring, job-training programs, and defense industries. The newly created Fair Employment Practices Commission investigates discrimination against black employees.

Government

Franklin Roosevelt (1882-1945) signs an executive order resulting in the internment of thousands of Japanese Americans living on the West Coast.

Government

Immigration: Congress allows for importation of agricultural workers from within North, Central, and South America. The Bracero Program allows Mexican laborers to work in the U.S.

War

World War II: Congress enacts measures to form the Women’s auxiliary corps of the Army, Marines, Navy, Air Force, and Coast Guard.

War

World War II: The Nazis formulate their “Final Solution” regarding the Jews at the Wannsee Conference.

War

World War II: Government wartime agencies take control of housing, alien property, shipping and transportation, foreign relief, censorship, and scientific research.

War

World War II: U.S. begins strict rationing of food and materials needed for the war effort.

Science

Russian Academy of Sciences awards honorary memberships to Americans for the first time: W. Cannon, E.O. Lawrence, and G. Lewis.

Medicine

French chemists prepare the first usable antihistamines.

Inventions

Henry Ford (1863-1947) patents the plastic automobile body.

Inventions

Magnetic recording tape is introduced.

Inventions

Bell Aircraft builds and tests the first U.S. jet, the XP-59.

Technology

Henry Kaiser (1882-1967) and Howard Hughes (1905-1976) design the Spruce Goose, an 8-engine airplane with room for 700 people.

Technology

Sonobuoys are used to detect submarines.

Technology

Radio signals (interference) are received from the Sun.

Technology

The first V-mail is sent overseas from New York City to London.

Arts and Letters

Dance: Copland (1900-1990) composes the ballet Rodeo, staged and choreographed by Agnes DeMille (1881-1959).

Ideas

Sister Elizabeth Kenny (1880-1952) publishes "Kenny Concept of Infantile Paralysis and Its Treatment."

Economics

The Grand Coulee Dam on the Columbia River in Washington State is completed.

Discovery

Mildenhall Treasure, a hoard of Roman silverware, is discovered in Suffolk, England.

Daily Life

Disasters: Mine explosions in Honkeiko, Manchuria kill 1549 people.

Daily Life

Disasters: The ocean liner Queen Mary collides with a British cruiser; 388 people on board the cruiser are killed.

Sports

Football: The Army-Navy football game that is usually seen by 100,000 fans in Philadelphia is played in Annapolis, Maryland for fewer than 12,000. By Presidential order, tickets are sold only to resident within a 10-mile radius of the stadium.

Sports

Baseball: Just weeks after the attack on Pearl Harbor, President Franklin Roosevelt declares, “it would be best for the country to keep baseball going.”

Popular Culture

Band leader Glenn Miller (1904-1944) receives the first ever gold record for selling a million copies of “Chattanooga Choo Choo.”

Religion

C.S. Lewis (1898-1963) publishes "The Screwtape Letters," an extremely popular Christian novel.

Religion

Lloyd Douglas, a Lutheran clergyman, publishes "The Robe," a novel based on the New Testament.

Government

Immigration: The Magnuson Act of 1943 repeals the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, establishes quotas for Chinese immigrants, and makes them eligible for U.S. citizenship.

War

U.S. Army engineers complete the Pentagon building. This 5-sided building, headquarters of the Department of Defense, remains the largest office building in the world.

War

World War II: President Roosevelt (1882-1945) and Prime Minister Churchill (1874-1965) meet at the Casablanca Conference.

War

World War II: The Nazi siege of Leningrad is broken.U.S. bombers sink Japanese convoy of 22 ships at the Battle of Bismarck Sea.

War

World War II: U.S. naval and amphibious forces begin island-hopping operations in the Pacific, capturing key bases.

Science

The hallucinogenic drug LSD is first produced by Albert Hoffman (1906-?) at Sandoz Laboratory in Basil, Switzerland.

Science

50,000 scientists and aides, all conducting secret atomic research suddenly populate the tiny town of Oak Ridge, Tennessee.

Medicine

Large-scale production of penicillin begins to meet the demand as the drug is being used to treat a variety of infectious diseases.

Medicine

Epidemics: An infantile paralysis (polio) epidemic kills 1151 people and cripples thousands more.

Inventions

Alvarez develops a radar-controlled bombsight.

Inventions

Polyethylene plastic is introduced.

Arts and Letters

American Theatre: Richard Rogers and Oscar Hammerstein II (1895-1960) begin their successful partnership when they produce the musical Oklahoma.

Arts and Letters

Leonard Bernstein (1918-1990), conductor and composer, becomes the assistant composer of the N.Y. Philharmonic.

Economics

The “Big Inch,” world’s longest oil pipeline, is dedicated. It is 1300 miles long and stretches from Texas to Pennsylvania.

Daily Life

Dancing: The jitterbug is the most popular dance.

Daily Life

Women in England are no longer required to wear hats in law courts.

Daily Life

The History of Toys: While searching for a suspension device to ease rough sailing on battleships, navy engineer Richard James discovers that a torsion spring will "walk" end over end when knocked over. James brought the discovery home to his wife, who named the new toy "Slinky."

Sports

Women in Sports: In its June 14th issue, Time estimates there are 40,000 semi-pro women's softball teams in the US.

Sports

Women in Sports: Baseball: Philip K. Wrigley starts what will become the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League, the country’s only professional female league.

Sports

The Detroit Red Wings win the last 4 games in the Stanley Cup finals, defeating the Boston Bruins 2-0 to become the National League Hockey Champions.

Religion

Public Education: U.S. Supreme Court reverses 1940 decision and holds that children cannot be required to salute the flag in school if their religion prohibits it; case brought to court by the Jehovah’s Witnesses.

Politics

Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945) is reelected President for a fourth term; Harry S. Truman (1884-1972) is elected the nation's 34th Vice President on the same Democratic ticket.

Government

The Declaration of Independence and other historical documents, sent from Washington D.C., for safekeeping in December 1941, are again displayed at the Library of Congress.

War

World War II: U.S. planes bomb Berlin for the first time.

War

World War II: U.S. troops establish beachheads at Utah Beach and Omaha Beach during the Allied invasion of Western Europe (D-Day).

Science

Uranium pile is built in Oak Ridge Tennessee.

Medicine

Alfred Blalock (1899-1964) and Marie Taussig introduce a surgical technique for saving “blue babies.”

Medicine

Oswald Avery (1877-1955) proves that DNA is the genetic material responsible for heredity.

Medicine

Clarence C. Little proposes that cancer is caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors.

Medicine

DDT is used to control a typhus outbreak in Naples, Italy.

Medicine

Daniel Bovet (1907-1992) discovers the antihistamine pyrilamine.

Inventions

Silicone resins are introduced as insulation capable of withstanding very high temperatures.

Education

Higher Education: President Roosevelt (1882-1945) signs The Serviceman Readjustment Act (G.I. Bill of Rights), establishing benefits for veterans after the war. One of the chief benefits of the law is the provision of funds for college for returning servicemen and women, thus providing access to higher education for many who would not have been able to afford it otherwise, and, in fact, making the idea of a college education a "normal" one for the next generation of young people.

Arts and Letters

Drama: Jean Anouilh (1910-1987) completes the play Antigone.

Ideas

Von Neumann (1903-1957) publishes "Theory of Games and Economic Behavior."

Johnson, Lady Bird

Lynda Bird Robb (1944- ), daughter of Lyndon and Claudia Johnson, is born March 19.

Daily Life

Meat rationing ends, except for steak and choice cuts of beef.

Daily Life

Transportation: The first non-stop flight from London to Canada takes place.

Popular Culture

Bing Crosby (1903-1977) stars in the film, "Going My Way."

Popular Culture

The popular radio show, "The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet," debuts.

Popular Culture

Jimmy “Trump” Davidson’s Big Band introduces Dixieland Jazz to Canada.

Politics

The Arab League is founded in Cairo by Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria.

Government

The Medal of Freedom is established. It is awarded to civilians for meritorious acts or service.

Government

United Nations: The United Nations opens in San Francisco. Senate ratifies UN Charter by a vote of 89 to 2.

Government

Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945) is inaugurated as President for a fourth term; Harry S. Truman (1884-1972) is inaugurated as the nation's 34th Vice President.

Government

Vice President Harry S. Truman (1884-1972) becomes the nation's 33rd President upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945). No new Vice President is selected.

War

World War II. The United States drops an atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan; the rationale is that it will shorten the war and save thousands of American and Japanese lives. Several days after the bombing, Japan surrenders, bringing World War II to an end.

War

World War II: The Russians liberate the Auschwitz concentration camp, where the Nazis killed over 1.5 million people, including over 1 million Jews.

War

World War II: U. S. Marines raise the American flag on Iwo Jima.

War

World War II: The Yalta Agreement is signed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), British Prime Minister Winston Churchill (1874-1965), and Soviet leader Josef Stalin (1879-1953).

War

World War II: World War II ends; cold war begins; Soviet Union becomes prime adversary of U.S; President Truman (1884-1972) pressured to take a hard-line on Communists, foreign and domestic.

Medicine

Woodward determines the chemical structure of penicillin by using a spectroscope.

Medicine

Spies proves that folic acid (a B-vitamin) is necessary for proper development of red blood cells.

Technology

Railroad History: The Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad, uses the first railroad car with an observation dome. The dome is 19.5 feet long and extends the full width of the railroad car.

Technology

Weather radar is developed.

Education

Children's Books: E.B. White (1899-1985) publishes the children’s classic Stuart Little.

Arts and Letters

Drama: Sartre (1905-1980) writes the play "No Exit."

Roosevelt, Eleanor

Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882-1945), 32nd president of the United States, dies of a massive cerebral hemorrhage at his home in Warm Springs, Georgia.

Economics

FCC sets aside 13 channels for commercial broadcasting.

Daily Life

Rationing of shoes, butter, and tires ends.

Daily Life

Benito Mussolini (1883-1945), Italian dictator and ally of Nazi Germany, is executed.

Daily Life

German dictator Adolph Hitler (1889-1945), and his newly married mistress, Eva Braun (1912-1945), commit suicide in his Berlin bunker.

Daily Life

Anne Frank (1929-1945), the Dutch Jewish teenager who kept a diary of her wartime experiences, dies at 15 in the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp in Germany.

Popular Culture

Popular radio shows include: "The Red Skeleton Show," "The Green Hornet," "Superman," "Inner Sanctum," "The Fred Allen Show," "One Man’s Family," and "Queen for a Day."

Popular Culture

Dizzy Gillespie (1917-1993) organizes an orchestra featuring the “bop” style of jazz.

Religion

Italian writer Carlo Levi (1902-1975) causes a sensation with his novel "Christ Stopped at Eboli."

Social Issues

Immigration: The War Bride Act and the G.I. Fiancées Act allows immigration of foreign-born wives, fiancé(e)s, husbands, and children of U.S. armed forces personnel.

Reform

Women''s Suffrage Movement: Women win the vote in France.

Law

Chief Justices: President Harry S. Truman nominates Fred M. Vinson as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court; the Senate confirms his nomination and he serves for seven years until his death in 1953.

Politics

McCarthy Era: November 1946 -- Joseph R. McCarthy (1908-1957)is first elected Senator from Wisconsin, defeating progressive titan Robert Lafollette (1855-1925). Richard Nixon (1913-1994) is elected Congressmen from Whittier, CA. The Democrats lose 12 Senate seats and 55 House seats.

Government

League of Nations: (April 18) The League transfers all its assets to the United Nations. Contract signed by W. Moderow, representative of the League, and Sean Lester, the last Secretary-General of the League of Nations.

Government

United Nations: The first General Assembly of the United Nations convenes in London.

Government

Ho Chi Minh (1890-1969) is elected president of North Viet Nam.

Government

The United Nations accepts an $8.5 million donation from John D. Rockefeller (1839-1937) to purchases the site for the new UN headquarters in New York City.

War

Cold War: Churchill (1874-1965) delivers a speech in Fulton, Missouri, warning about Soviet expansion and coining the phrase the “Iron Curtain.” This marks the beginning of the “Cold War.”

War

The Army and Navy are permitted to manufacture atomic weapons.

War

Chinese Communists tell the U.S. to stop supplying arms to the Nationalist Chinese Party. The U.S. gives up trying to mediate the civil war in China.

Science

Carbon-12, and isotope is discovered.

Science

The Atomic Energy Commission is established.

Inventions

Printed circuits are developed.

Technology

Computer Technology: A computer begins working at the University of Pennsylvania, taking seconds to do calculations that normally take hours. It is named ENIAC, or Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Taylor Caldwell (1900-1985) publishes "This Side of Innocence."

Arts and Letters

Architecture: The “ranch-type” home becomes popular; many find the low-slung, single story homes very appealing.

Ideas

Lemaitre (1894-1966) publishes "Hypothesis of the Primeval Atom."

Nixon, Pat

Tricia Nixon Cox (1946- ), daughter of Richard and Patricia Nixon, is born February 21.

Bush, Barbara

George Walker Bush (1946- ), son of George and Barbara Bush, is born July 6.

Discovery

Byrd (1888-1957) leads an expedition to the North Pole.

Daily Life

Mikhail Botvinnik (1911-1995) of the U.S.S.R. is considered the world’s finest chess player.

Daily Life

The government lifts most price and wage controls. U.S.

Daily Life

Disasters: An Army plane crashes into the Manhattan Company in New York City; 5 people are killed.

Sports

Women’s Firsts: Women in Sports: Edith Houghton becomes the first woman hired as a major-league baseball scout.

Popular Culture

Alfred Hitchcock (1899-1980) directs the film Notorious.

Popular Culture

Irving Berlin (1888-1989) writes the score for the Broadway musical, "Annie Get Your Gun."

Religion

Mother Frances X. Cabrini (1850-1917) is canonized; she is the first U.S. citizen to become a saint in the Catholic Church.

Religion

Women’s Firsts: Mother Maria Frances Cabrini (1850-1917) is canonized by Pope Pius XII. She is the first U.S. citizen (she was born in Italy) to become a saint.

Reform

Women''s Suffrage Movement: Women win the vote in Italy.

Reform

The strike by the United Mine Workers begins. President Truman seizes the mines after employers reject the government’s negotiated contract.

Law

Education: The Supreme Court upholds a state law permitting pupils attending parochial schools to ride on public school buses. This is the first of many cases on the separation of church and state in relation to schools.

Law

The Twenty-Second Amendment to the Constitution, limiting Presidents to two terms, is passed by Congress.

Government

McCarthy Era: Senator McCarthy (1908-1957) is assigned to the Government Operations Committee in Senate; Congressman Nixon is appointed to the House Un-American Activities Committee. Mr. Nixon is first lawyer on The Committee and is noteworthy for raising the level of "respectability" of the Committee's proceedings.

Government

McCarthy Era: Criticized for loose scrutiny of federal employees, President Truman (1884-1972) initiates a loyalty program for civil servants -- the Federal Loyalty Board Program.

Government

Congress approves economic and military assistance for Greece and Turkey.

Government

Congress enacts the Labor Management Relations Act (Taft-Hartley Labor Act) over President Truman’s veto. It limits the power of labor unions and puts restrictions on strikes, closed shop, and political activities.

Government

President Truman (1884-1972) states the principle of Soviet Containment (Truman Doctrine).

Government

Britain nationalizes coalmines, cable and radio communications, and the electrical supply industry.

Government

The Secretary of State proposes the European Recovery Program (The Marshall Plan) to give economic aid to certain war-torn European nations.

War

World War II: U.S. ratifies peace treaties with Italy, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Rumania.

War

The National Security Act unifies all branches of the armed services into a new Department of Defense.

Science

Willard Frank Libby (1908-1980) develops radio-carbon dating (carbon-14) and uses this method to determine the age of several ancient artifacts.

Medicine

Heparin is synthesized.

Medicine

Bovet discovers synthetic drugs that produce a non-poisonous, curare-like effect.

Technology

Edwin Land (1906-1991) introduces the Polaroid camera for instant photographs.

Technology

Howard Aiken (1900-1973) produces an improved electromechanical calculator, the Mark II.

Technology

Personal Computers: Three scientists at Bell Telephone Laboratories, William Shockley (1910-1989), Walter Brattain (1902-1987), and John Bardeen (1908-1991) demonstrate their new invention of the point-contact transistor amplifier. The name transistor is short for "transfer resistance.”

Arts and Letters

American Theatre: The principal approach to production (a theatricalized realism compounded of acting, which emphasized intense psychological truth, and of visual elements, which eliminated nonessentials but retained realistic outlines) is popularized. The method is made most renown by Elia Kazan (1909-2003) and Jo Mielziner (1901-1976) in the 1947 production of "Streetcar Named Desire" and the 1949 production of "Death of a Salesman."

Arts and Letters

Drama: Arthur Miller (1915-2005) publishes "All My Sons."

Arts and Letters

Drama: Tennessee Williams (1911-1983) publishes the Pulitzer Prize winning work, "A Streetcar Named Desire."

Arts and Letters

Literature: James Michener (1907-1997) publishes "Tales of the South Pacific," the basis for the Broadway show "South Pacific."

Johnson, Lady Bird

Luci Baines Johnson Turpin (1947- ), daughter of Lyndon and Claudia Johnson, is born July 2.

Carter, Rosalynn

John William “Jack” Carter (1947- ), son of James “Jimmy” and Rosalynn Carter, is born July 3.

Daily Life

Congressional proceedings are televised for the first time.

Daily Life

The wartime draft ends.

Daily Life

Transportation: The first supersonic jet flight takes place.

Daily Life

Fashion: With wartime shortages over, Christian Dior introduces "The New Look" in women's fashions, featuring calf-lenth full skirts and large hats.

Sports

Black Athletes: Baseball: Jackie Robinson (1919-1972), the first black baseball player in the major leagues, makes his debut with the Brooklyn Dodgers, and scores the game-winning run.

Sports

John Cobb (1899-1952) establishes a world ground speed record of 394.196 mph.

Popular Culture

Reports of “flying saucers” receive widespread publicity.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: In the Fay v. New York case, the U.S. Supreme Court says women are equally qualified with men to serve on juries but are granted an exemption and may serve or not as women choose.

Law

Education: The Supreme Court rules that religious instruction in public schools violates the Constitution.

Politics

McCarthy Era: 1948 -- HUAC gets Whitaker Chambers to implicate Alger Hiss as a spy. Nixon destroys Hiss's reputation in the press, reveals "Pumpkin Papers" in conference.

Politics

Democratic President Harry S. Truman (1884-1972) is re-elected as President of the U.S. and Alben W. Barkley (1877-1956) is elected as the nation's 35th Vice President.

Politics

Southern Democrats bolt the Democratic Party in opposition to the civil rights platform.

Politics

Communists take control of the government in Czechoslovakia.

Government

President Harry Truman (1884-1972) signs the Marshall Plan, a major policy and financial commitment to aid in the recovery of Europe after World War II.

Government

The U.S. recognizes the new state of Israel.

Government

Burma (now called Myanmar) and Ceylon (now called Sri Lanka) gain their independence from Great Britain.

War

Cold War: Communist Party leaders in the U.S. are indicted and charged with instigating the overthrow of the U.S. government.

Science

Lovell determines that meteors are natural phenomenon of the solar system.

Science

Oak Ridge National Laboratory begins to develop peaceful uses for atomic energy.

Medicine

The U.S. Public Health Service devises a simple test for diabetes mellitus.

Medicine

Yale University scientists develop a nylon respirator to replace the iron lung.

Medicine

The World Health Organization (WHO) is organized. They first meet in Geneva, Switzerland.

Education

Public Education: The Educational Testing Service is formed, merging the College Entrance Examination Board, the Cooperative Test Service, the Graduate Records Office, the National Committee on Teachers Examinations and others, with huge grants from the Rockefeller and Carnegie foundations. These testing services continued the work of eugenicists like Carl Brigham (originator of the SAT) who did research "proving" that immigrants were feeble-minded.

Arts and Letters

Literature: William Faulkner (1897-1962) publishes "Intruder in the Dust."

Nixon, Pat

Julie Nixon Eisenhower (1948 - ), daughter of Richard and Patricia Nixon, is born July 5.

Daily Life

Women''s Firsts: The first female Army officer is sworn in.

Daily Life

Crayola: To help art teachers learn about the many ways to use the growing number of Crayola products, a teacher workshop program begins to offer in-school training across the country. It continues today.

Sports

Women in Sports: The Roller Derby is broadcast live on television from New York City with women skaters.

Sports

Women in Sports: Black Athletes: The first woman to win an olympic gold medal is Alice Coachman (1923-…), who wins in the high jump.

Sports

Baseball: Stan Musial (1920-) of the St. Louis Cardinals wins the Most Valuable Player Award for the third time.

Popular Culture

The first motion-picture newsreel in color is taken in Pasadena, California at the Tournament of Roses Parade and the Rose Bowl.

Popular Culture

Miles Davis (1926-1991) leads a nine piece combo that pioneers “cool” jazz.

Social Issues

Native Americans: Native Americans win the right to vote in state elections.

Social Issues

Immigration: The Supreme Court rules that California’s Alien Land Laws prohibiting the ownership of agricultural property violates the Constitution’s 14th Amendment.

Social Issues

Immigration: The United States admits persons fleeing persecution in their native lands; allowing 205,000 refugees to enter within two years.

Reform

Women''s Suffrage Movement: Women win the vote in Belgium.

Government

President Truman (1884-1972) outlines his “Point Four” proposal for U.S. technical aid to underdevelopedcountries.

Government

President Truman (1884-1972) proposes a program of domestic litigation called the “Fair Deal.”

Government

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) agreement is signed.

Government

The country of Siam changes its name to Thailand.

Government

The German Federal Republic is established.

Government

Democratic President Harry S. Truman (1884-1972) is inaugurated as President of the U.S. and Alben W. Barkley (1877-1956) is inaugurated as the nation's 35th Vice President.

War

Cold War: Soviets explode Hydrogen Bomb. Mainland China becomes Communist.

Medicine

First implant of intraocular lens used by Sir Harold Ridley (1906- 2001).

Medicine

The American Cancer Society and the National Cancer Institute warn that cigarette smoking may cause cancer.

Medicine

Commercial production of ACTH begins. It is used to treat arthritis, rheumatic fever, and gout.

Medicine

Waksman (1888-1973) prepares neomycin, an antibiotic.

Medicine

Epidemic: 2,720 deaths occur from polio, and 42,173 cases are reported.

Inventions

The Atomic Energy Commission designs a breeder reactor that produces power by nuclear fusion, creating more fuel than it uses.

Technology

Computer Technology: Eckert (1919-1995) and Mauchly (1907-1980) build BINAC (Binary Automatic Computer), the first computer with self-checking devices.

Technology

The National Bureau of Standards builds an atomic clock that is accurate to within 1 second over the course of 3 million years.

Arts and Letters

American Theatre: There are only 150 legitimate professional theatres serving the entire U.S.

Arts and Letters

American Theatre: 70 TV stations are serving 2 million receivers in urban areas; this is same number as those attending the remaining theatres.

Ideas

Orwell (1903-1950) foresees a grim future in his satirical masterpiece "1984," a novel that introduces the “Big Brother” concept of totalitarian government.

Ideas

Maria Geoppert-Mayer (1906-1972) develops a nuclear shell theory.

Bush, Barbara

Pauline Robinson “Robin” Bush (1949-1953), daughter of George and Barbara Bush, is born December 20.

Daily Life

Transportation: The first non-stop around the world flight (23,452 miles) is completed by Captain James Gallagher in 94 hours, 1 minute.

Daily Life

Fashion: Bathing suits called “bikinis” are introduced to the American fashion scene.

Daily Life

The History of Toys: Ole Christiansen, a Danish toy maker, begins to manufacture toy blocks with a new twist. Christiansen creates a plastic brick that can be locked together in different configurations. The Lego, which comes from the Danish leg godt, meaning "play well," was born. The continuing popularity of the Lego brick probably stems from its ability to stimulate a child''s imagination-just six bricks fit together in 102,981,500 different ways.

Daily Life

The History of Toys: Eleanor Abbott designs Candy Land while recovering from polio in San Diego, California.

Sports

U.S. wins unofficial championship of the 14th Olympic games in London with a team score of 547 points.

Popular Culture

The first Emmy Awards are presented for excellence in television.

Popular Culture

The movie "Hamlet," starring Laurence Olivier (1907-1989), becomes the first British film to win an Oscar.

Government

Three years after gaining its independence from Great Britain, India formally becomes a republic.

Government

Senator Joseph McCarthy (1908-1957) claims he has evidence that there are card-carrying members of the Communist Party in the State Department.

War

Cold War: The Soviet Union announces its possession of the atomic bomb.

War

Korean War: President Truman (1884-1972) authorizes the use of U.S. forces in Korea, following the invasion of South Korea by North Korean troops. A naval blockade of Korea is ordered.

Science

President Truman (1884-1972) authorizes the Atomic Energy Commission to produce the hydrogen bomb (H-bomb).

Science

Congress establishes the National Science Foundation.

Medicine

Although Americans spend more than $100 million annually on antihistamines, research shows that the drugs neither prevent nor cure the common cold, but merely relieve some symptoms.

Medicine

Nobel Prize for the Physiology of Medicine goes to Phillip Hench (1896-1965) (American), Edward Kendall (1886-1972) (American), and T. Reichstein (1897-1996) (Swiss) for the discovery of cortisone and its medical uses.

Inventions

The History of Toys: Silly putty is invented.

Technology

The longest vehicular tunnel, the Brooklyn-Battery tunnel in New York City, opens to traffic.

Education

Libraries: First drive-through windows are established for book returns at Cincinnati's Public Library.

Arts and Letters

American Theatre: Children’s Theatres, College and University Theatres, Community Theatres, and Off-Broadway theatres experience some growth.

Ford, Betty

Michael Gerald Ford (1950- ), son of Gerald and Betty Ford, is born March 14.

Carter, Rosalynn

James Earl “Chip” Carter III (1950-), son of James “Jimmy” and Rosalynn Carter, is born April 12.

Truman, Bess

Assassination: Two Puerto Rican nationalists make unsuccessful attempts to kill President Truman (1884-1972).

Economics

U.S. bars trade shipments to Communist China.

Economics

The Ford Thunderbird is introduced.

Discovery

Archaeological discoveries in La Jolla, California, indicate that North America has been inhabited for at least 40,000 years.

Daily Life

Crime and Punishment: The FBI releases its “Ten Most Wanted Fugitives” list for the first time.

Sports

Richard Button (1929-), age 19, world figure skating champion is selected as top U.S. amateur athlete.

Sports

Women in Sports: Black Athletes: Althea Gibson becomes the first African-American— male or female—to play in a major United States Lawn Tennis Association (USLTA) event.

Popular Culture

Leroy Anderson (1908-1975) writes the holiday song “Sleigh Ride.”

Popular Culture

Leonard Bernstein (1918-1990) writes the score to "Peter Pan," which stars Mary Martin (1913-1990) in the title role.

Religion

The National Council of the Churches of Christ is formed; it unites 25 Protestant and 4 Eastern Orthodox groups. Membership is 32 million.

Religion

Pope Pius XII (1876-1958) proclaims the first Roman Catholic dogma since 1870-that the Virgin Mary, after her death, was assumed into Heaven physically and spiritually.

Social Issues

Immigration: Bureau of Indian Affairs terminates federal services for Native Americans in lieu of state supervision.

Law

The 22nd Amendment to the Constitution, limiting presidents to two terms, is ratified by two-thirds of the states and added to the Constitution.

Law

The Supreme Court upholds the Smith Act, under which eleven Communists in the U.S. are convicted.

Politics

Winston Churchill (1874-1965) again becomes the British Prime Minister.

Government

The United Nations headquarters opens in New York City.

Government

The Mutual Security Agency is set up to offer U.S. economic, military, and technical aid to other countries.

Government

A Selective Service Bill lowers draft age to 18.5 and lengthens military service to two years.

War

Korean War: During the Korean War, North Korean and Communist Chinese forces captured the city of Seoul.

War

Korean War: President Harry S. Truman (1884-1972) fires General Douglas McArthur.

War

World War II: President Truman (1884-1972) declares that state of war with Germany is officially ended; the U.S.-Japanese treaty allows the U.S. to maintain military bases in Japan.

War

Korean War: North Korean and Communist Chinese forces captured the city of Seoul.

Science

The National Geographic Society estimates that there are 300 million stars in the Milky Way.

Medicine

Woodard synthesizes two steroids: cortisone and cholesterol.

Medicine

Fluoridated water is shown to reduce tooth decay by 2/3.

Medicine

Reuben L. Kahn (1887-1874) develops a “universal reaction” blood test for the early detection of several diseases.

Medicine

Antabuse, a drug that prevents alcoholics from drinking, is introduced.

Inventions

A video camera is developed that records both pictures and sound on magnetic tape.

Technology

The United States Air Force starts atomic testing in the Nevada desert.

Technology

Computer Technology: UNIVAC I (Universal automatic computer) is the first commercially successful computer. It is 14 1/2 feet long, 7 1/2 feet wide, and 8 feet high. Forty-six UNIVACS are sold to businesses at prices starting at $600,000.

Technology

An additional 70 broadcast frequencies are made available for TV in the ultra-high frequency (UHF) range.

Arts and Letters

Literature: J.D. Salinger (1919- ) publishes "The Catcher in the Rye."

Ideas

Rachel Carson (1907-1964) publishes "The Sea Around Us," which in effect launches the ecological movement.

Economics

The employment of women reaches the highest point-even more than during WWII.

Daily Life

Crime and Punishment: Julius (1918-1951) and Ethel (1915-1951) Rosenberg are found guilty of passing atomic secrets to the Russians and are sentenced to death as spies.

Sports

Horse Racing: The first horse to win $1 million dollars is “Citation.” Winning total $1,085,760.

Sports

Boxing: The world heavyweight championship is won by Jersey Joe Walcott when he knocks out Ezzard Charles. At 37, Walcott is the oldest man to win the title.

Sports

Center fielder Willie Mays makes his major-league debut with the New York Giants. He goes on to win the 1951 National League Rookie of the Year award.

Popular Culture

The first commercial color telecast is presented by the Columbia Broadcasting Company (CBS) in New York City.

Popular Culture

Rodgers (1902-1979) and Hammerstein II (1895-1960) write the score for the King and I.

Politics

Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890-1969) is elected the 34th President of the U.S. and Richard M. Nixon (1913-1994) is elected the 36th Vice President on the Republican ticket. Eisenhower is the first Republican President since Hoover’s election in 1928. Republicans gain control of Congress.

Government

England’s Princess Elizabeth becomes Queen Elizabeth II of Great Britain.

Government

Immigration: Congress passes the McCarran-Walter Act (Immigration and Nationality Act) over President Truman’s (1884-1972) veto. It abolishes race as a barrier to immigration but retains the national origins quota system.

Government

Immigration: The Immigration and Nationality Act allows individuals of all races to be eligible for naturalization. The act also reaffirms national origins quota system, limits immigration from the Eastern Hemisphere while leaving the Western Hemisphere unrestricted, establishes preferences for skilled workers and relatives of U.S. citizens and permanent resident aliens; and tightens security and screening standards and procedures.

Government

Native Americans: The Bureau of Indian Affairs begins selling 1.6 million acres of Native American land to developers.

Government

Puerto Rico's constitution is proclaimed, establishing a commonwealth with autonomy in internal affairs.

War

Prime Minister Churchill (1874-1965) announces that Great Britain has made an atomic bomb.

Science

Edward Teller (1908-2003) successfully tests a hydrogen bomb, the world’s finest nuclear weapon.

Medicine

Research shows that the genetic material of viruses is DNA.

Medicine

Floyd Lewis uses hypothermia (lowing a patients body temperature) in open heart surgery.

Medicine

Epidemic: In the worst polio epidemic since 1916, polio takes 3,300 lives out of 57,628 cases reported.

Medicine

Vaccines: Jonas Salk (1914- 1995) develops the first polio vaccine.

Inventions

The History of Toys: Jack Odell invents the original Matchbox car when he makes a small brass model of a Road Roller and puts it into a matchbox so that his daughter could bring it to school. Today, 100 million Matchbox cars are sold each year.

Technology

More than 2000 new television broadcasting stations open; about 65 million people watch the presidential nomination conventions.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Flannery O’Connor (1925-1964) writes "Wise Blood," a novel about a religious fanatic.

Arts and Letters

Hemingway (1899-1961) publishes "The Old Man and the Sea."

Ford, Betty

John “Jack” Gardner Ford (1952- ), son of Gerald and Betty Ford, is born March 16.

Carter, Rosalynn

Donnell Jeffrey “Jeff” Carter (1952- ), son of James “Jimmy” and Rosalynn Carter, is born August 18.

Reagan, Nancy

Patricia “Patti Davis” Ann Reagan (1952- ), daughter of Ronald and Nancy Reagan, is born October 22.

Economics

A complaint is filed against IBM, alleging monopolistic practices in its computer business, in violation of the Sherman Act.

Daily Life

The History of Toys: Banking on the idea that children like to play with their food, Hasbro introduces Mr. Potato Head.

Sports

Racecar driver John Cobb is killed while attempting to set the water speed-record in Scotland.

Sports

The NFL buys the New York Yankees.

Popular Culture

Panty raids take place on college campuses throughout the country.

Popular Culture

Hollywood develops three-dimensional movies. Natural Vision (3-D) films must be viewed through special glasses; after brief success, the novelty wears off.

Religion

The Revised Standard Version of the Bible for Protestants is publishes; it is edited by 32 scholars who have been at work since 1937.

Reform

Peace Corps: Since the end of the Second World War, various members of the United States Congress have proposed bills to establish volunteer organizations in the Third World. In 1952 Senator Brien McMahon (1903-1952) (Dem. Connecticut) proposed an "army" of young Americans to act as "missionaries of democracy". Privately funded non-religious organizations have been sending volunteers overseas since the 1950s.

Law

Chief Justices: President Dwight D. Eisenhower nominates Earl Warren as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court; the Senate confirms his nomination in 1954 and he serves for fifteen years until his retirement in 1969.

Politics

President Eisenhower (1890-1969) gets increasing pressure to take on McCarthy (1908-1957) from friends and advisors. Business leaders recognize that McCarthy is a danger to the party.

Government

Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890-1969) is inaugurated as the 34th President of the U.S. and Richard M. Nixon (1913-1994) is inaugurated as the 36th Vice President.

Government

Immigration: Congress amends the 1948 refugee policy to allow for the admission of 200,000 more refugees.

Government

Native Americans: Congress proposes giving individual Indians the same civil status as U.S. citizens, thus ending all limitations on Indian tribes.

Government

Tito (1892-1980) is elected the first president of the Republic of Yugoslavia.

Government

Dag Hammarskjold (1905-1961) of Sweden becomes the Secretary General of the United Nations.

Government

A new Cabinet-level Department of Health, Education, and Welfare is created.

War

Cold War: President Eisenhower (1890-1969) announces that the U.S. will not physically interfere in the affairs of countries behind the Iron Curtain.

War

Cold War: The U.S. Communist Party is ordered to register with the Department of Justice as an organization controlled and directed by the U.S.S.R.

War

Cold War: A federal jury in New York City convicts 13 Communists of conspiring to teach about how to overthrow the U.S. government.

War

U.S blockade of Formosa is lifted, permitting attacks by Nationalists on China’s mainland.

Science

Francis H. Crick (1916-2004) and James Dewey Watson (1928- ) discover the structure of a DNA molecule; they call it the double helix.

Inventions

Transistorized hearing aids are introduced.

Technology

Harry Truman (1884-1972) announces that the U.S. has developed the hydrogen bomb.

Technology

A way of transmitting color TV signals that can be received by both color and black and white set is introduced.

Arts and Letters

Drama: Arthur Miller (1915-1005) publishes "The Crucible."

Arts and Letters

Literature: Richard Wright (1908-1961) publishes "The Outsider."

Bush, Barbara

John Ellis “Jeb” Bush (1953- ), son of George and Barbara Bush, is born February 11.

Bush, Barbara

Pauline Robinson “Robin” Bush (1949-1953), daughter of George and Barbara Bush, dies October 11 of leukemia.

Economics

Motor Company: Ford Motor Company celebrates its 50th anniversary.

Discovery

Women’s Firsts: Jerrie Cobb (1931- …) is the first woman in the U.S. to undergo astronaut testing. NASA, however, cancels the women''s program in 1963. It is not until 1983 that an American woman gets sent into space.

Daily Life

Fashion: Fashion designers become interested in men’s clothes. Bermuda shorts for the businessman are promoted and worn during the summer months.

Sports

Baseball: The New York Yankees defeat the Brooklyn Dodgers in the 50th annual World Series. The Yankees are the first team to win 5 consecutive series titles.

Sports

Golf: Golfer Ben Hogan (1912-1997) wins the Masters Tournament and the U.S. and British Open championships.

Sports

Maureen Connolly (1934-1969), age 19, is the first woman to win a “grand slam” in tennis.

Sports

Black Athletes: Football: Willie Thrower (1930-2002) becomes NFL''s first African-American quarterback.

Popular Culture

Lucy Ricardo (Lucille Ball) (1911-1989) gives birth to baby Ricky on the TV show, "I Love Lucy." More people turned in to watch the show than did to see the inauguration of President Dwight Eisenhower (1890-1969).

Popular Culture

The first three-D movie, "Bwana Devil," opens in New York.

Popular Culture

The Academy Awards are televised for the first time.

Law

Education: The Supreme Court rules in Brown v. Topeka Board of Education that “separate but equal” educational facilities are unconstitutional.

Government

The Senate censures Senator Joseph McCarthy (1908-1957) with a vote of 67-22, with 7 abstentions.

Government

The Communist Control Act deprives U.S. Communists of rights enjoyed by other U.S. citizens.

Government

U.S. signs pact with Nationalist China (now Taiwan).

War

Senate approves U.S. South Korea Mutual Defense Treaty.

War

America’s first nuclear-powered submarine, the U.S.S. Nautilus, is launched.

Medicine

The American Cancer Society reports higher death rates among cigarette smokers.

Inventions

Kurchatov (1903-1960) develops an icebreaker powered by nuclear energy.

Technology

U.S. and Canada announce the construction of the Distant Early Warning (DEW) line of radar stations across northern North America.

Technology

Battery Technology: RCA develops a flashlight-sized atomic battery.

Technology

The U.S. authorizes construction of the St. Lawrence Seaway in cooperation with Canada.

Education

Public Education: Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka. The Supreme Court unanimously agrees that segregated schools are "inherently unequal" and must be abolished. Almost 45 years later in 1998, schools, especially in the north, are as segregated as ever.

Arts and Letters

Literature: J. R. R. Tolkien (1892-1973) publishes the epic fantasy trilogy "Lord of the Rings."

Arts and Letters

Literature: William Golding (1911-1993) publishes "Lord of the Flies."

Arts and Letters

Literature: Kingsley Amis (1922-1995) publishes "Lucky Jim."

Economics

The Atomic Energy Act allows for the development of peaceful atomic energy project by private companies, which are also allowed to own nuclear materials.

Discovery

Plant fossils are discovered in the Great Lakes.

Discovery

Temple of Mithras (Roman god, 3rd century B.C) is discovered during rebuilding in London.

Daily Life

26 comic book publishers adopt a voluntary code to eliminate obscene, vulgar, and horror comics.

Daily Life

The average American’s favorite meal is a fruit cup, vegetable soup, steak and potatoes, peas, rolls and butter, and pie a la mode.

Sports

Baseball: Hank Aaron (1934- ) hits the first of his 755 home runs.

Sports

Horse Racing: Gordon Richards (1904-1986) is the first professional jockey to be knighted.

Sports

British runner Diane Leather (1933-) is the first woman to run the mile in under 5 minutes.

Popular Culture

The first Newport Jazz festival takes place.

Government

Winston Churchill (1874-1965) resigns as Prime Minister of England.

War

Cold War: Federal employees who are “security risks” continue to be dismissed an ongoing policy since 1953.

War

Congress authorizes the President to use force, if necessary, to protect Nationalist China against Communist attack.

Science

The National Geographic Society suggests that the blue-green areas on Mars are living plants.

Medicine

Vaccines: The polio vaccine created by Dr. Jonas Salk (1914-1995) is called “safe, effective and potent.”

Technology

Electricity for public use is produced on a limited and experimental basis at a nuclear reactor.

Education

Libraries: The Public Library of Cincinnati and Hamilton County opens a new main library.

Education

Public Education: Brown v. Board: In Brown II, the Court orders that desegregation should occur “with all deliberate speed.” Unfortunately, the vagueness of this phrase, combined with the unwillingness of many states to desegregate, meant that many states were able to postpone any desegregation. Anger over these delays and a growing frustration over the continued disenfranchisement of African-Americans helped launch the Civil Rights Movement.

Arts and Letters

Marian Anderson (1897-1993) makes her Metropolitan Opera debut.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Thomas Merton (1915-1968) publishes "No Man is an Island."

Arts and Letters

Drama: Tennesse Williams (1911-1983) writes "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof."

Bush, Barbara

Neil Mallon Bush (1955- ), son of George and Barbara Bush, is born January 22.

Economics

The Labor Movement: American Federation of Labor (AFL) and the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) merge.

Economics

Commercial television broadcasting begins in Britain.

Daily Life

On July 17, Arco, Idaho, becomes the first town to have all its electrical needs generated by a nuclear power plant.

Daily Life

New York also draws power from a nuclear power plant.

Popular Culture

President Eisenhower (1890-1969) approves the first filming of a news conference for television.

Popular Culture

The first McDonald’s restaurant is opened by Ray Kroc (1902-1984) in Des Plaines, Illinois.

Popular Culture

Jim Henson (1936-1990) creates Kermit the frog.

Popular Culture

Rock ‘n’ roll music is attacked as “immoral” and is thought to contribute to juvenile delinquency.

Religion

Ordination of women ministers is approved by the Presbyterian Church.

Reform

Civil Rights Movement: Blacks boycott city bus lines in Montgomery, Alabama. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. (1929-1968), boycott leader, gains national prominence for advocating passive resistance to segregation in public places.

Reform

The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) encourages and supports segregation movement throughout the country.

Politics

Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890-1969) and Richard M. Nixon (1913-1994) are reelected as President and Vice President of the United States

Government

The Agriculture (Soil Bank) Act pays farmers to take cropland out of production in order to reduce crop surpluses.

Government

The Federal Aid Highway Act authorizes a 13-year intra and interstate highway building program to be funded by tolls paid by motorists.

Government

Morocco gains its independence from France.

Science

The neutrino, a subatomic particle with no charge, is observed.

Medicine

The National Cancer Institute proposes that increased rates of lung cancer may be due to air pollution.

Medicine

The National Academy of Science reports that any radiation, even small amounts, can cause genetic damage.

Inventions

The Hovercraft is invented.

Technology

England opens the world’s first major atomic power plant for the production of electricity.

Technology

Personal Computers: The first transistorized computer is completed, the TX-O (Transistorized Experimental computer), at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Ideas

Charles T.R. Wilson (1869-1959) proposes a theory of thunderstorm electricity.

Ford, Betty

Steven Meigs Ford (1956- ), son of Gerald and Betty Ford, is born May 19.

Bush, Barbara

Marvin Pierce Bush (1956- ), son of George and Barbara Bush, is born December 22.

Economics

The Ford Motor Company goes public and, on Feb. 24, 1956, they have about 350,000 new stockholders.

Economics

A U.S. District Court makes a final judgment on the complaint against IBM filed in January 1952 regarding monopolistic practices. A "consent decree" is signed by IBM, placing limitations on how IBM conducts business with respect to "electronic data processing machines.”

Discovery

The Palace of Emperor Diocletian (Roman Emperor A.D. 285-305) is excavated in Split, Yugoslavia

Daily Life

Barnum & Bailey Circus performs its last show under canvas.

Daily Life

The History of Toys: Play-doh enters the market as a wallpaper cleaner. Non-toxic and less messy than regular modeling clay, it is soon recognized that the cleaner makes an excellent toy.

Sports

Black Athletes: Mildred McDaniel's (1933-…) winning high jump in Melbourne, Australia, makes her the first African-American woman to win an Olympic gold medal.

Sports

Boxing: Rocky Marciano (1923-1969) retires as undefeated world heavyweight boxing champion.

Popular Culture

Elvis Presley’s (1935-1977) record, "Heartbreak Hotel," hits No. 1 on the pop charts.

Popular Culture

Movies and movie stars are allowed to appear on TV for the first time.

Popular Culture

The Broadway musical, "My Fair Lady" gains recognition.

Popular Culture

Dizzie Gillespie (1917-1993) and his band are sent by the U.S. State Department on a goodwill tour-the first jazz musicians to be subsidized by the U.S. government.

Social Issues

Segregation: Southern Congressman call on states to resist “by all lawful means” the Supreme Court ruling against segregation in the public schools.

Government

The U.S. proposes a 10-month halt to nuclear testing as a first step toward disarmament.

Government

Stamps: The Citizen's Stamp Advisory Committee is created to provide advice to the Postmaster General on the subject matter and design of US stamps.

War

World War II: U.S. occupation forces leave Japan.

War

A Senate subcommittee holds hearings on U.S. preparedness to withstand Soviet military attack.

Science

The Federation of American Scientists urges a worldwide ban on nuclear weapon testing.

Science

Space Race: In October, the Soviet Union successfully launches the first artificial satellite, called Sputnik I (the Russian word for "traveler"; in November, they launch Sputnik 2, which carries a small dog named Laika into orbit.

Medicine

Vaccines: Albert Sabin (1906-1993) begins human trials on his oral polio vaccine.

Medicine

Walter Grey Walter (1910-1977) invents the brain EEG topography (toposcope).

Medicine

Daniele Bovet (1896-1980) wins the Nobel Prize for his discovery of antihistamines and muscle relaxing drugs.

Technology

Perceptron, a bionic computer that prints, writes, and responds to spoken commands is developed.

Education

Public Education: A federal court orders integration of Little Rock, Arkansas public schools. Governor Orval Faubus sends his National Guard to physically prevent nine African American students from enrolling at all-white Central High School. Reluctantly, President Eisenhower sends federal troops to enforce the court order not because he supports desegregation, but because he can't let a state governor use military power to defy the U.S. federal government.

Kennedy, Jackie

Caroline Kennedy Schlossberg (1957-), daughter of John and Jacqueline Kennedy, is born November 27.

Ford, Betty

Susan Ford Vance Bales (1957- ), daughter of Gerald and Betty Ford, is born July 6.

Economics

America’s first large nuclear power plant opens in Shippingport, Pa.

Economics

American Money: Paper currency is first issued with "In God We Trust" as required by Congress in 1955.

Daily Life

Fashion: The sack dress, unfitted material that drapes the body, is the fashion of the year.

Sports

Baseball: The Dodgers leave Brooklyn for Los Angeles. The Giants leave New York for San Francisco. Major league baseball finally reaches the west coast.

Sports

Women in Sports: Black Athletes: Althea Gibson (1927-2003) becomes the first black person to play in and win Wimbledon and the United States national tennis championship. She won both tournaments twice, in 1957 and 1958.

Popular Culture

The Beatles: John Lennon (1940-1980) meets Paul McCartney (1942- ) on July 6, 1957.

Government

Nikita Khrushchev (1894-1971) becomes Soviet premier and first secretary of the Communist Party in the Soviet Union.

Government

The Federal Aviation Agency (FAA) is established to ensure air safety.

War

The Defense Reorganization Act centralizes defense structure so that the U.S. can respond more quickly to a nuclear attack by the U.S.S.R.

Science

Space Race: The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is established.

Technology

Space Race: Explorer I, the first U.S. earth satellite, is launched; Explorer II is launched, but fails to make orbit; the Soviet Union launches Sputnit 3; the U.S. launches Vanguard 1, which functions for 3 years.

Technology

Stereo LPs are introduced.

Technology

There are 160 electronic computers in use in Europe (1000 in U.S.)

Technology

Personal Computers: At Texas Instruments, Jack Kilby (1923-2005) completes building the first integrated circuit, containing five components on a piece of germanium half an inch long and thinner than a toothpick.

Education

Crayola: Prussian blue, the first Crayola crayon color to get a new name, becomes "midnight blue." Teachers prompted the change, as children could no longer relate to Prussian history.

Education

The Supreme Court orders states to not delay public school desegregation.

Education

The National Defense Education Act is signed; this authorizes low-interest, long-term tuition loans to college and graduate students.

Arts and Letters

Drama: Tennessee Williams (1911-1983) publishes "Suddenly Last Summer."

Arts and Letters

American Theatre: Television penetration reaches 85% of population.

Ideas

Bionics is a word coined to describe artificial machines or systems that work and or look like living systems.

Reagan, Nancy

Ronald Prescott Reagan (1958- ), son of Ronald and Nancy Reagan, is born May 20.

Discovery

Sir Edmund Hillary (1919- ) reaches the South Pole overland.

Discovery

Explorer Sir Vivian Fuchs (1908-1999) completes the first crossing of Antarctica by land.

Daily Life

The first parking meters are used in London.

Daily Life

Crayola: The Crayola 64 Box with its signature built-in sharpener debuts, becoming the perennial favorite of Crayola colorers for more than 40 years.

Sports

Black Athletes: Willie O’Ree (1935-…) is one of the NHL hockey players in Boston Bruins.

Sports

Women in Sports: Women are admitted to the international cycling championships.

Popular Culture

At age 14, Bobby Fischer (1943- ) wins the U.S. Chess Championship for the first time.

Popular Culture

Rock ‘n’ roll star Elvis Presley (1935-1977) begins a two-year hitch in the U.S. army.

Popular Culture

Duke Ellington (1899-1974) composes the song "Satin Doll."

Religion

U.S. churches report large increases in membership since 1950.

Religion

Judaism: The Supreme Religious Center for World Jewry is dedicated in Jerusalem, Israel.

Law

The Supreme Court rules that a person can be tried for the same offense in both state and federal courts (double jeopardy).

Government

New State: Alaska becomes the 49th state in the Union.

Government

Charles de Gaulle (1890-1970) becomes the first president of France’s Fifth Republic.

Government

Fidel Castro (1926- ) becomes the leader of Cuba after having ousted the right-wing dictator, Fulgencio Batista (1901-1973).

Government

American Flag: The Executive Order of President Eisenhower dated January 3, 1959 establishes the arrangement of the stars in seven rows of seven stars each, staggered horizontally and vertically.

Science

International Atomic Energy Agency is formed to explore peaceful uses of atomic energy.

Science

Heat produced in a nuclear reaction is converted directly into electricity via a plasma thermocouple.

Science

Space Race: NASA selects the first 7 astronauts.

Technology

Space Race: The first spacecraft to orbit the Sun, Mechta (Luna 1) is launched by the USSR in January; Luna 2 impacts the moon in September; Luna 3 orbits the moon in October, photographing 70% of its surface.

Technology

GE demonstrates a radio-optical telescope tracking station for following and monitoring space vehicles.

Technology

Personal Computers: At Fairchild Semiconductor, Robert Noyce (1927-1990) constructs an integrated circuit with components connected by aluminum lines on a silicon-oxide surface layer on a plane of silicon.

Technology

Space Race: The U.S. launches Pioneer 4, which passes within 37,000 miles of the moon.

Arts and Letters

American Theatre: The San Francisco Mime Troupe created by R. G. Davis is established.

Arts and Letters

American Theatre: The Ford Foundation funds the regional theatre program but it cannot continue because of a lack of subsequent investments.

Arts and Letters

Drama: Lorraine Hansberry (1930-1965) publishes "Raisin in the Sun."

Arts and Letters

Drama: Eugene Ionesco (1912-1994) writes the play "Rhinoceros."

Bush, Barbara

Lives of the First Ladies: Dorothy “Doro” Bush Koch (1959- ), daughter of George and Barbara Bush, is born August 18.

Economics

The Ford Motor Company establishes what today is the industry’s largest automobile leasing company known as Ford Credit. More than 40 years later, it’s still helping make vehicle ownership a more affordable reality for many.

Daily Life

The History of Toys: The Barbie doll is introduced at the American Toy Fair in New York City by Elliot Handler, founder of Mattel Toys, and his wife, Ruth.

Sports

The largest fish ever hooked with a rod and reel is landed by Alfred Dean in South Australia; the fish is a white shark measuring 16 feet and 10 inches and weighed 2,664 pounds.

Sports

Football: The American Football League is formed.

Popular Culture

Richard Rodgers (1902-1979) and Oscar Hammerstein (1895-1960) compose the score for "The Sound of Music."

Religion

The Dalai Lama receives political asylum from India, after fleeing Chinese repression of a Tibetan revolt.

Religion

Pope John XXIII (1881-1963) calls for Vatican Council II, the first ecumenical council since 1870.

Social Issues

Immigration: Fidel Castro’s Cuban revolution prompts mass exodus of more than 200,000 people within three years.

Reform

Labor Movement: Nationwide steel strike lasts 116 days; this is the longest steel strike in U.S. history.

Law

The Twenty-third Amendment to the Constitution, enabling residents of the District of Columbia to vote for President and Vice President in national elections, is passed by Congress.

Politics

John F. Kennedy (1917-1963) is elected as the 35th President of the United States, and Lyndon B. Johnson (1908-1973) is elected as the nation's 37th Vice President.

Politics

President Eisenhower (1890-1969) makes goodwill tours in the Far East and Latin America.

Government

Women’s Firsts: Oveta Culp Hobby (1905-1995) becomes the first woman to serve as Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare. She is also the first director of the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC), and the first woman to receive the U.S. Army Distinguished Service Medal.

War

Cuban Missile Crisis: December 19, Cuba openly aligns itself with the Soviet Union and their policies.

War

Cold War: U-2 photographic reconnaissance plane is shot down over Soviet territory. Premier Khrushchev denounces U.S. spying missions.

War

U.S. warns North Vietnam and Communist China not to intervene militarily in Laos.

Science

Nobel Prize in chemistry goes to W. Libby (1908-1980) for developing radiocarbon dating.

Science

D. Glaser (1926-) is awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics for inventing the bubble chamber.

Technology

Space Race: The world’s first meteorological satellite, Tiros I, is launched to provide pictures of cloud cover.

Technology

Airplanes: The X-15, an experimental rocket powered airplane, is flown at 2196 mph.

Technology

Personal Computers: Digital Equipment introduces the first minicomputer, the PDP-1, selling for $120,000. It is the first commercial computer equipped with a keyboard and monitor.

Technology

Space Race: The U.S. launches Discoverer XIV, its first camera-equipped spy satellite.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Harper Lee (1926- ) publishes "To Kill a Mockingbird."

Kennedy, Jackie

John Fitzgerald Kennedy Jr. (1960-1999), son of John and Jacqueline Kennedy, is born November 25.

Economics

Peace Corps: John F. Kennedy launches the idea of the Peace Corps at the University of Michigan during a campaign stop in his presidential bid. Critics of the program (including Kennedy''s opponent, Richard M. Nixon (1913-1994)) claim the program will be nothing but a haven for draft dodgers. Others doubt whether college-aged volunteers have the necessary skills.

Discovery

Women’s Firsts: Jacqueline Cochran (1906-1980) breaks the sound barrier by flying an F-86 over Rogers Dry Lake, California, at the speed of 652.337 miles per hour.

Daily Life

The History of Toys: Ohio Art markets the first Etch-a-Sketch, invented by Arthur Granjean in the late 1950s, and originally called L'Ecran Magique.

Daily Life

Disasters: A United Airlines plane collides with a Trans World Airlines plane in a fog over New York City; the crash kills a total of 134 people on board and on the ground.

Daily Life

Women’s transcontinental air race is won by Mrs. Aileen Saunders. She flies 2709 miles in 18 hours and 7 minutes.

Sports

Black Athletes: Rafer Johnson 91935-…) is named by the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) to be the recipient of the James E. Sullivan Memorial Award in 1960, the highest award for an amateur athlete in the United States

Popular Culture

Alfred Hitchcock (1899-1980) releases the suspense thriller, "Psycho."

Popular Culture

The Beatles: Coming together as The Fabulous Silver Beatles, later shortened to The Beatles, the name of the band is a tribute to Buddy Holly's (1936-1959) band, The Crickets, combined with beat music, a common British term for rock and roll at the time.

Popular Culture

Chubby Checker (1941-) causes an international dance craze when he records "The Twist."

Popular Culture

Popular musicals include "The Fantasticks," "Bye, Bye Birdie," and "Camelot."

Religion

Three women are ordained as priests in the Swedish Lutheran Church.

Reform

Civil Rights Movement: Four black college students begin a series of sit-ins at a white-only lunch counter in Woolworth’s, Greensboro, South Carolina.

Reform

Peace Corps: John F. Kennedy (1917-1963) first announces his idea for a volunteer organization during the 1960 presidential campaign at a late-night speech at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor on October 14.

Law

The Twenty-third Amendment to the Constitution, enabling residents of the District of Columbia to vote for President and Vice President in national elections, is ratified by two-thirds of the states and added to the Constitution.

Government

John F. Kennedy (1917-1963) is inaugurated as the 35th President of the United States, and Lyndon B. Johnson (1908-1973) is inaugurated as the nation's 37th Vice President.

Government

Space Race: President Kennedy (1917-1963) addresses Congress, challenging the nation to go to the moon before the end of the decade.

Government

Peace Corps: President Kennedy (1917-1963) signs an Executive Order which officially starts the Peace Corps, and names Sargent Shriver (1915-) to be the program's first director. Concerned with the growing tide of revolutionary sentiment in the Third World, Kennedy saw the Peace Corps as a means of countering the notions of the "Ugly American" and "Yankee imperialism," especially in the emerging nations of postcolonial Africa and Asia.

War

Cuban Missile Crisis: Fifteen hundred Cuban exiles unsuccessfully attempt to invade Cuba at the Bay of Pigs; U.S. support for the attack is equally unsuccessful; President John F. Kennedy (1917-1963) accepts sole responsibility for the Bay of Pigs failure.

Science

The Institute for Space Studies holds a two-month seminar on the origin of the solar system.

Medicine

The Chicago Heart Association begins recording children’s heart sounds as a means of detecting defects.

Technology

Space Race: Soviet cosmonaut Yuri A. Gagarin becomes the first human in space and also the first human to orbit the earth in a spacecraft; later in the year, Gherman Titov spends a day in space aboard Vostok 2.

Technology

Transit 4A, a communications satellite, is the first spacecraft to use nuclear power.

Arts and Letters

Literature: "Tropic of Cancer" and "Tropic of Capricorn," two novels by Henry Miller (1891-1980), are published in the U.S. after a 30- year ban for obscenity.

Arts and Letters

American Theatre: The Bread and Puppet Theatre is created; the form is expressionistic and propagandistic. It uses puppets and masked actors who ritually offer bread to the audience.

Ideas

Murray Gell-Mann (1929- ) develops the Eight-Fold Way, a method of grouping subatomic particles into families.

Economics

Peace Corps: President Kennedy (1917-1963) establishes the Peace Corps to give trained manpower and technical assistance to underdeveloped countries.

Discovery

Space Race: Alan B. Shepard becomes the first American in space; Gus Grissom is launched in a sub-orbital flight.

Daily Life

France and England connect their electrical grids with a cable submerged in the English Channel.

Daily Life

President John F. Kennedy (1917-1963) holds the first presidential news conference carried live on radio and television.

Daily Life

Disasters: A fire in Bel Air-Brentwood destroys 447 homes, including some owned by well-known Hollywood figures.

Sports

Baseball: Roger Maris (1934-1985) of the New York Yankees hits his 60th home run and sets the record for a 162-game schedule.

Sports

Women in Sports: Black Athletes: Wilma Rudolph (1940-1994) is the first African-American woman to receive the Sullivan Award (1961), the highest award in U.S. amateur sports.

Popular Culture

The Beatles: Brian Epstein (1934-1967) agrees to become the band's full-time manager.

Popular Culture

The Beatles: The Beatles play their first gig at Liverpool's Cavern Club, return to Hamburg, record backing for the singer Tony Sheridan; the single, "My Bonnie", was released in Germany, and credited to Tony Sheridan and the Beat Boys. It was the Beatles' first commercial release.

Popular Culture

Pete Seeger (1919- ) composes “Where Have All the Flowers Gone.”

Religion

The American Unitarian Association and the Universalist Church of America merge to form the Unitarian Universalists

Social Issues

Immigration: The Cuban Refugee Program handles influx of immigrants to Miami with 300,000 immigrants relocated across the U.S. during the next two decades.

Social Issues

Native Americans: Over 500 Native Americans gather for the American Indian Chicago Conference to support tribal sovereignty and survival.

Reform

Civil Rights Movement: This year marks the beginning of the Freedom Rides, and Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s only visit to Seattle where he spoke at two assemblies at Garfield High School.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: In Hoyt v. Florida, the U.S. Supreme Court upholds rules adopted by the state of Florida that made it far less likely for women than men to be called for jury service on the grounds that a “woman is still regarded as the center of home and family life.”

Law

The Twenty-Fourth Amendment to the Constitution, banning poll taxes, is passed by Congress.

Law

Education: The Supreme Court rules that public schools cannot require the recitation of prayers because it violates the First Amendment to the Constitution.

Government

Stamps: The first U.S. Christmas stamp is issued.

Government

The Trade Expansion Act gives the President the right to reduce tariffs and to assist companies hurt by lower duties.

War

Cold War: The Soviet Union exchanges captured American U-2 pilot Francis Gary Powers (1929-1977) for Rudolph Abel, a Soviet spy held by the United States.

War

Vietnam War: U.S. troops on a training mission in Vietnam are ordered to fire if fired upon by enemy troops. A new military command, known as the Military Assistance Command (MAC) is set up in South Vietnam.

War

Cuban Missile Crisis: In a face-to-face standoff with Cuba over Russian missils on the island 90 miles from the continental United States, President Kennedy and Nikita Krushchev bring the world to the brink of war, the Kremlin ultimately agrees to remove the missiles.

Science

Marshall Nirenberg (1927- ) discovers the genetic code (DNA structure) for amino acid.

Science

Jacques Cousteau (1910-1997) publishes "The Living Sea," a work about underwater life.

Medicine

Vaccines: First Oral Polio Vaccine is used.

Medicine

Cadrioversion, the use of electric shock to restore a regular heartbeat, is introduced.

Technology

Space Race: John Glenn (1921- ) becomes the first American to orbit the Earth three times; Scott Carpenter repleats that feat; Walter Schirra orbits six times. Mariner 2 flies past Venus, and NASA selects its second group of astronauts.

Technology

Space Race: The Soviets launch two manned spacecrafts: Vostok 3 and Vostok 4.

Ideas

Jessica Mitford (1917-1996) publishes the controversial book "The American Way of Death;" it creates a great deal of interest in low cost yet very dignified burials.

Daily Life

The World’s Fair, Century 21 Exposition, opens in Seattle. The 600-ft Space Needle with a revolving restaurant on top is a popular attraction.

Daily Life

British weather reports give temperatures in Celsius as well as Fahrenheit.

Daily Life

History of Toys: Crayola: The Company renames the flesh crayon "peach" to recognize that not everyone’s skin color is the same.

Sports

Women in Sports: Black Athletes: Jackie Robinson (1919–1972) becomes the first African American to be inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame.

Sports

Basketball: Philadelphia basketball star Wilt Chamberlain (1936-1999) scores an NBA-record 100 points in a single game.

Popular Culture

The Beatles: Brian Epstein arranges for the Beatles to audition for Decca Records, which rejects the band on the grounds that guitar music is "on the way out"; they are later signed by EMI.

Religion

Pope John XXIII (1881-1963) excommunicates Fidel Castro (1926).

Religion

The Vatican Council II opens in Rome, called by Pope John XXIII (in 1959) to promote Christian unity.

Reform

American Protest Music: “The Death of Emmett Till” is composed by Bob Dylan (1941-) during the Civil Rights Movement.

Law

In "Gideon v. Wainwright," the Supreme Court holds that public defenders must be provided for indigent defendants in felony cases.

Government

George Wallace (1919-1998), sworn in as Alabama’s governor, promises “segregation forever.”

Government

Stamps: The Zone Improvement Plan (ZIP) code -- a five digit number -- began on July 1, 1963. The first number designates the state or area; the next two numbers, the area within that state or area; and the last two digits, the office itself.

Government

Lyndon B. Johnson (1908-1973) is inaugurated as the nation's 36th President upon the assassination of President John F. Kennedy (1917-1963). No new Vice President is selected.

War

The U.S. and the U.S.S.R. agree to set up a “hot-line,” a direct telephone link between Washington and Moscow, to prevent the start of nuclear war by accident.

Medicine

Dr. Michael E. DeBakey (1908-2008) develops a mechanical heart that is implanted in the chest to help the patient’s own heart pump.

Medicine

Vaccines: John F. Enders (1897-1985), T. H Weller (1915-2005), and Frederick C. Robbins (1916-2003) develop an effective measles vaccine.

Inventions

Computers: Douglas Engelbart (1925- ) invents the mouse pointing device for computers.

Technology

Polaroid introduces color film.

Technology

Color TV is relayed via satellite for the first time.

Education

An education report in Britain indicates that children should not be allowed to leave school before age 16.

Education

Libraries: Detroit Public Library issues skates to library student assistants so they can move quickly in the 230-foot-long stacks.

Arts and Letters

American Theatre: The Free Southern Theatre is formed with the intention of raisin cultural awareness of blacks through white tradition.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Susan Sontag (1933- ) publishes "The Benefactor," a novel about people who are unable to distinguish reality from fantasy.

Arts and Letters

Soviet authorities begin a campaign to suppress “artistic rebels.”

Kennedy, Jackie

Patrick Bouvier Kennedy (1963), son of John and Jacqueline Kennedy, is born prematurely on August 7 at Otis Air Force Base, Massachusetts and dies August 9 of the same year in Boston because his lungs were too undeveloped to sustain him.

Daily Life

Crime and Punishment: Alcatraz Prison in San Francisco Bay, is closed.

Daily Life

Winston Churchill (1874-1965) posthumously becomes the first honorary U.S. citizen.

Popular Culture

The first discotheque, the Whiskey-A-Go-Go, opens in Los Angeles.

Popular Culture

"General Hospital," the daytime soap opera, airs on ABC for the first time.

Popular Culture

"Cleopatra," the most expensive motion picture to date ($37 million), opens in New York City and in theatres nationwide.

Popular Culture

The Beatles: Beatlemania as a chaotic cultural phenomenon begins in Britain on October 13, 1963 with a televised appearance at the London Palladium.

Religion

The Catholic Church approves the use of vernacular languages- English in the U.S. - in place of Latin for parts of the Mass and for sacraments.

Reform

Civil Rights Movement: Civil rights demonstrations occur throughout the country. Medgar W. Evers (1925-1963), Field Secretary for the NAACP, is shot an killed in Jackson, Mississippi.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: The Equal Pay Act is passed by Congress, promising equitable wages for the same work, regardless of the race, color, religion, national origin or sex of the worker.

Law

The 24th Amendment to the Constitution, prohibiting poll taxes, is ratified by two-thirds of the states and added to the Constitution.

Politics

Lyndon B. Johnson (1908-1973) is elected President of the U.S. in his own right, and Hubert H. Humphrey (1911-1978) is elected the 38th Vice President.

Government

Stamps: The United States starts printing stamps of different designs on one sheet known as se-tenants. The Christmas issue of 1964 was the first year different designs were printed on the same pane of stamps.

Government

Civil Rights Movement: The Civil Rights Act of 1964 ensures voting rights and prohibits housing discrimination.

Government

Women’s Firsts: Margaret Chase Smith (1897-1995), of Maine, becomes the first woman nominated for president of the United States by a major political party, at the Republican National Convention in San Francisco.

Government

Lyndon Johnson (1908-1973) announces his war on poverty.

Science

The U.S. Navy begins its Sealab experimental program to determine if people can live and work for extended periods of time at the bottom of the ocean.

Science

British scientists leave England in large numbers for the U.S. - the “Brain Drain.”

Medicine

The first government report regarding the dangers of cigarette smoking is issued by Luther Terry (1911-1985), the U.S. Surgeon General.

Medicine

Vaccines: First vaccine for Measles is used.

Inventions

Bullet train transportation is invented.

Technology

Personal Computers: At Dartmouth College, in Hanover, New Hampshire, the BASIC programming language runs for the first time. Developed by professors John Kemeny (1926-1992) and Thomas Kurtz (1928 -), BASIC is an acronym for Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code.

Education

Libraries: Twenty-five Freedom Libraries are established throughout Mississippi by a group of librarian volunteers in the civil rights movement.

Education

Public Education: Civil Rights Movement: In response to protests, and the often violent reaction to them, Congress passed several pieces of legislation seeking to end racial discrimination. These included the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, the Higher Education Act, the Voting Rights Act, the Fair Housing Act, and the Bilingual Education Act.

Education

Public Education: Despite a number of Supreme Court cases and national legislation, less than 1 percent of all black children in the south went to a desegregated school.

Arts and Letters

American Theatre: The Black Arts Repertoire Theatre School is formed.

Arts and Letters

Architecture: Edward Durell Stone (1902-1978) designs the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington. D.C.

Ideas

Walter R. Hess (1881-1973) publishes "The Biology of the Mind."

Economics

Ford introduces its Mustang at the New York World''s Fair.

Daily Life

Crime and Punishment: Jack Ruby (1911-1967) is found guilty of the murder of Lee Harvey Oswald (1939-1963), alleged assassin of President John F. Kennedy (1917-1963).

Daily Life

Disasters: The most violent earthquake (8.3) in North America strikes Anchorage, Alaska.

Sports

Boxing: Cassius Clay (Muhammad Ali) (1942- ) becomes world heavyweight boxing champion for the first time by knocking out Sonny Liston (1932-1971) in Miami Beach.

Popular Culture

The Beatles: The Beatles arrive in the U.S. for the first time, appearing on the Ed Sullivan Show; they also release their first album, "Meet the Beatles."

Popular Culture

The Rolling Stones release their first album.

Popular Culture

"Mary Poppins," a film starring Dick van Dyke (1925- ) and Julie Andrews (1935- ) becomes the most successful Disney film to date.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: Title VII of the Civil Rights Act passes including a prohibition against employment discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin, or sex.

Law

The Twenty-Fifth Amendment to the Constitution, establishing Presidential succession, is passed by Congress.

Government

Lyndon B. Johnson (1908-1973) is inaugurated President of the U.S. in his own right, and Hubert H. Humphrey (1911-1978) is inaugurated as the 38th Vice President.

Government

Capital Punishment: The death penalty is abolished in Britain.

Government

Immigration: The Immigration Act of 1965 abolishes quota system in favor of quota systems with 20,000 immigrants per country limits. Preference is given to immediate families of immigrants and skilled workers.

Government

Women’s Firsts: Patsy Takemoto Mink (1927—2002), of Hawaii, is the first Asian-American woman elected to Congress. She served in the U.S. House of Representatives for 24 years.

Government

The Maple Leaf Flag officially becomes the new national flag of Canada.

Science

Nobel Prize for Chemistry goes to R. Woodard for developing methods of synthesizing organic substances.

Medicine

Frank Pantridge (1916- 2004) installs the first portable defibrillator.

Technology

Space Race: Soviet cosmonaut Aleksei Leonov becomes the first man to walk in space.

Education

Public Education: The U.S. spends more than $26.2 billion for public school education: $654 per student.

Arts and Letters

Poetry: "Ariel," a collection of poems by Sylvia Plath (1932-1963), is published posthumously by her husband, English poet, Ted Hughes (1930-1998).

Arts and Letters

Drama: Neil Simon (1927- ) writes the play "The Odd Couple."

Arts and Letters

American Theatre: The El Teatro Campesino is established by Luis Valdez for National Farm Workers Association; the purpose of the organization is to perform dramatizations that can educate farm laborers in California.

Arts and Letters

The National Endowment of the Arts is established and begins a period of development of federal public support for major regional arts institutions.

Discovery

Sandage (1926- ) discovers blue galaxies. They are similar to quasars, but do not give off radio waves.

Discovery

Space Exploration: France becomes the third country with space exploration capabilities when they launch their satellite A-1.

Daily Life

There are more than 5 million color television sets in the U.S.

Daily Life

The History of Toys: Stanley Weston creates a doll for boys--G.I. Joe--based on a new television show called "The Lieutenant."

Sports

Women in Sports: Golf: The Women''s Golf Open is televised nationally for the first time.

Popular Culture

The popular game show "Jeopardy" debuts on television.

Popular Culture

Sonny Bono (1935-1998) and his wife Cher (1946- ) achieve fame with their song “I Got You, Babe.”

Popular Culture

The Beatles: Queen Elizabeth II (1926- ) awards each of the four Beatles Members of the Order of the British Empire (MBE).

Popular Culture

The Beatles: The Beatles start their second North American tour at Shea Stadium, which is the first rock concert to be held in a venue of that size.

Social Issues

Immigration: “Freedom flight” airlifts begin for Cuban refugees assisting more than 260,000 people over the next eight years.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: Weeks v. Southern Bell, 408 F. 2d. 228 (5th Cir. 1969), marks a major triumph in the fight against restrictive labor laws and company regulations on the hours and conditions of women's work, opening many previously male-only jobs to women.

Reform

Civil Rights Movement: Peaceful civil rights marchers from Selma, Alabama, and brutally attacked with billy clubs and tear gas by police on the Edmund Pettus Bridge; the event becomes known as “Bloody Sunday.”

Reform

Civil Rights Movement: Martin Luther King, Jr. (1929-1968) again leads the start of a civil rights march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama; on March 25, the 25,000-person march ends its journey on the steps of the State Capitol in Montgomery.

Law

Civil Rights Movement: The Supreme Court upholds the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

Politics

Ileana Ros-Lehtinen (1952- …), of Florida, becomes the first Hispanic woman elected to Congress. She serves in the U.S. House of Representatives.

Government

Immigration: The Cuban Refugee Act permits more than 400,000 people to enter the United States.

Government

Indira Gandhi (1917-1984) is elected prime minister of India.

Government

The Cabinet-level Department of Transportation is established.

War

Vietnam War: The U.S. increases its military strength in Vietnam and its bombing of the North.

Science

President Johnson’s (1908-1973) Science Advisory Committee publishes "Effective Use of the Sea."

Inventions

The History of Toys: Elliot Handler, one of the co-founders of Mattel, Inc., invents Hot Wheels when he decides to add axles and rotating wheels to small model cars.

Technology

Personal Computers: Steven Gray founds the Amateur Computer Society, and begins publishing the ACS Newsletter. (Some consider this to be the birth-date of personal computing).

Technology

Space Race: Neil Armstrong (1930- ) and David Scott (1932- ), astronauts on board Gemini 8, rendezvous and dock with an unmanned target vehicle.

Technology

Space Race: Survivor I achieves a soft landing on the Moon and sends back 11,237 photographs.

Arts and Letters

Drama: Elia Kazan (1909-2003) writes the play, "The Arrangement."

Ideas

Francis Crick (1916-2004) publishes "Of Molecules and Men."

Economics

Railroad History: The Interstate Commerce Commission approves the merger of the New York Central and the Pennsylvania railroads.

Economics

The Motor Vehicle Safety Act sets the standard for all American automobiles built after 1968.

Daily Life

The Uniform Time Act establishes that daylight savings time is to be observed throughout the country from the last Sunday in April until the last Sunday in October.

Daily Life

The Salvation Army celebrates its 100th anniversary.

Daily Life

Congress enacts the truth and packaging law, which requires that clear and correct statements about the ingredients in about 8000 drug, cosmetic, and food products are printed for the consumer.

Daily Life

Fashion: Miniskirts come into fashion.

Sports

Soccer: England defeats West Germany to win the World Cup in soccer.

Sports

Baseball: Astroturf, the first artificial sports surface, is installed in the Houston Astrodome.

Popular Culture

The Beatles: On July 2, 1966, The Beatles became the first musical group to perform at the Nippon Budokan Hall in Tokyo. The performance ignited a lot of protest from local citizens who felt that it was inappropriate for a rock-and-roll band to play at Budokan.

Popular Culture

"Batman" debuts on television.

Popular Culture

Tolkien’s "The Lord of the Rings" enjoys cultish popularity in the U.S.

Social Issues

Hate Groups: Ku Klux Klan makes attacks against blacks and civil rights workers in the South.

Reform

Civil Rights Movement: Race riots occur in slum areas of Chicago, Cleveland, and other cities. Congress authorizes funds to assist rebuilding programs.

Law

The 25th Amendment to the Constitution, establishing presidential succession, is ratified by two-thirds of the states and added to the Constitution.

Law

Appointed by President Lyndon Johnson 1905-1973), Thurgood Marshall (1908-1993) becomes the first African American to sit on the Supreme Court.

Government

The first African-American senator elected by popular vote, Edward Brooke (1919- ) of Massachusetts, takes his seat.

Government

Peace Corps: Until about 1967, applicants to the Peace Corps had to pass a placement test that tested "general aptitude" (knowledge of various skills needed for various Peace Corps assignments) and language aptitude.

Science

Kornberg (1918- ) synthesizes biologically active DNA.

Medicine

Electroencephalographs (EEG) are teamed with computers to test the hearing of infants.

Medicine

10 million children are vaccinated against measles.

Medicine

Aspirin is found to be a possible cause of ulcers.

Medicine

High blood cholesterol is determined to be a factor in heart disease.

Technology

Space Race: A fire on the launching pad kills astronauts Grissom (1926-1967), White (1930-1967), and Chaffee (1935-1967), and destroys the Apollo 1 spacecraft during a simulated launch at Cape Canaveral.

Technology

3-D holographic movies are developed, and computers are used to create music electronically.

Education

Evolution: Tennessee formally repeals the 1925 law banning the teaching of evolution made famous in the Scopes Trial

Arts and Letters

American Theatre: The New Lafayette Company is formed.

Johnson, Lady Bird

White House Wedding: Lynda Bird Johnson (1944-), daughter of Lady Bird (1912 -) and Lyndon B. Johnson (1908-1973), marries Charles S. Robb (1939 -) in the White House.

Carter, Rosalynn

Amy Carter Wentzel (1967- ), daughter of James “Jimmy” and Rosalynn Carter, is born October 19.

Economics

The establishment of Ford of Europe takes place.

Economics

Women’s Firsts: Muriel "Mickey" Siebert (1932- …) becomes the first woman to own a seat on the New York Stock Exchange and the first woman to head one of its member firms.

Daily Life

Disasters: An oil tanker, the Torrey Canyon, is wrecked off the coast of Cornwall in England, spilling 919,000 barrels of oil into the sea.

Sports

Football: The first Super Bowl is played: Green Bay Packers 35, Kansas City Chiefs 10.

Sports

Baseball: Mickey Mantle (1931-1995) of the New York Yankees hits his 500th career homerun.

Sports

Women’s Firsts: Women in Sports: Black Athletes: Althea Gibson (1927-2003) is the first African-American tennis player to win a singles title at Wimbledon.

Popular Culture

The Beatles: On June 25, 1967 The Beatles performed "All You Need Is Love" for the Our World television special. It was the first television special to air worldwide. Singing backup for the Beatles were a number of artists including Eric Clapton (1945- ), and members of the Rolling Stones and The Who.

Popular Culture

Ira Levin (1929-2007) publishes "Rosemary’s Baby."

Popular Culture

Twiggy (1949- ), a British model, takes world fashion by storm.

Reform

Civil Rights Movement: Riots occur in black areas of Cleveland, Detroit, Newark, Boston, New Haven, and other cities.

Politics

Richard M. Nixon (1913-1994), a Republican, narrowly defeats Democrat Hubert Humphrey (1911-1978) to become the 37th President of the United States; Spiro T. Agnew (1918-1996) is elected as the nation's 39th Vice President.

Government

Native Americans: Title II of the Civil Rights Act gives full civil rights to individuals living under tribal law.

Government

Civil Rights Movement: President Lyndon B. Johnson (1908-1973) signs the 1968 Civil Rights Law.

War

North Korea seizes the U.S. Navy ship Pueblo (the crew is released 11 months later).

War

Vietnam War: Viet Cong guerillas and North Vietnamese soldiers launch the Tet (New York) offensive.

War

Vietnam War: The My Lai massacre occurs in Vietnam.

Science

Geneticists reveal that some male criminals have an extra Y chromosome.

Science

James Watson (1928- ) publishes "The Double Helix," describing the DNA molecule.

Science

The discovery of a pulsar is announced.

Medicine

Surgeons experiment with animal hearts for transplants to human beings.

Medicine

Vaccines: The mumps vaccine, developed in 1966, is improved for human use.

Inventions

Computers: Hewlett-Packard introduces the first programmable scientific desktop calculator, called "the new Hewlett-Packard 911A personal computer". (This is claimed as coining the term "personal computer").

Inventions

Computers: Dr. Robert Dennard, of the IBM T.J. Watson Research Center patents a one-transistor DRAM cell and the basic idea in the three-transistor cell, which will become the standard short-term storage medium for programs and data during processing (RAM).

Technology

Space Race: Surveyor 7, the last of America’s unmanned lunar probes, lands on the moon.

Education

Higher Education: Student unrest because of the Vietnam War and other social causes creates wide confusion and changes in university life.

Education

Public Education: African American Education: African American parents and white teachers clash in the Ocean Hill-Brownsville area of New York City, over the issue of community control of the schools. Teachers go on strike, and the community organizes freedom schools while the public schools are closed.

Arts and Letters

American Theatre: The Negro Ensemble Company is formed.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Kurt Vonnegut (1922- ) publishes "Welcome to the Monkey House."

Discovery

The skull of a 28 million year old ape is discovered in Egypt.

Daily Life

The nation’s first 911-phone system goes into service in Haleyville, Alabama.

Daily Life

London Bridge is sold to an American, who rebuilds it in Arizona.

Daily Life

Crime and Punishment: Violent crimes have increased 57% since 1960.

Sports

Hugh Porter of Britain wins the world cycling championship in Rome.

Sports

Black Athletes: The first black male champion in tennis tournament is Arthur Ashe (1943-1993) who won the 1968 U.S. Open, the 1970 Australian Open, and the 1975 Wimbledon championship.

Popular Culture

The classification of movies by “G,” “PG,” “PG-13,” and “R” begins.

Popular Culture

Mike Nichols (1931- ) directs the film "The Graduate," starring Dustin Hoffman (1937- ) and Anne Bancroft (1931-2005).

Popular Culture

The Beatles: The Beatles release a full-length musical cartoon, "Yellow Submarine."

Popular Culture

Disney’s Mickey Mouse celebrates his 40th birthday.

Religion

The foundation of the Temple of Herod is found in Israel.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: Executive Order 11246 prohibits sex discriminationby government contractors and requires affirmative action plans for hiring women.

Law

Chief Justices: President Richard M. Nixon (1913-1994) nominates Warren E. Burger (1907-1995) as Chief Justice of the United States; he is confirmed by the Senate two weeks later and serves in that position for seventeen years until his retirement in 1986.

Politics

Large antiwar demonstrations take place, including Vietnam Moratorium Days in Washington, D.C.

Politics

Vice President Agnew (1918-1996) accuses network television and the press of biased news coverage.

Government

The Palestine National Congress appoints Yasser Arafat (1929-2004) as head of the Palestine Liberation Organization.

Government

Women's Firsts: Golda Meir (1898-1978) is sworn in as Israel’s first female prime minister.

Government

Women’s Firsts: Shirley Chisholm (1924-2005), of New York, becomes the first African-American woman in Congress. Her motto is, "Unbought and unbossed." She serves in the U.S. House of Representatives for 14 years.

Government

Richard M. Nixon (1913-1994), is inaugurated as the 37th President of the U.S.. amd Spiro T. Agnew (1918-1996) is inaugurated as the nation's 39th Vice President.

War

Vietnam War: President Johnson (1908-1973) announces proposed withdrawal of U.S. troops from Vietnam.

Science

A fossil skull found in Antarctica proves “without question” the theory of continental drift.

Science

The fourth or “D” ring of Saturn is discovered.

Science

The National Audubon Society begins a national campaign to ban DDT because the chemical is killing bald eagles.

Science

Ribonuclease is the first enzyme to be synthesized.

Technology

Space Race: The first manned mission (Apollo) to the Moon takes place.

Technology

Neil Armstrong (1930- ) is the first man to walk on the Moon, thus "winning" the space race for the U.S.

Education

Libraries: The Cooperative College Library Center, the first consortium of black academic libraries, opens in Atlanta.

Education

Higher Education: Education of Women: Several traditionally all-male colleges, including Yale, Bowdoin, and Colgate, admit women students.

Arts and Letters

Painting: Rembrandt’s (1606-1669) “Self Portrait” sells for $1,256,000 at Christie’s in London.

Arts and Letters

Dance: Arthur Mitchell (1934- ) establishes the Dance Theatre of Harlem.

Ideas

Arthur Jensen (1923- ) stirs widespread debate by his published claim that blacks are genetically less intelligent than whites.

Hoover, Lou

Herbert Hoover Jr. (1903-1969), son of Herbert and Lou Hoover, dies April 9 from cancer.

Economics

The United States attorney general charges IBM with unlawful monopolization of the computer industry, and requests the federal courts break it up.

Daily Life

Crime and Punishment: Sirhan Sirhan (1944- ) is convicted for the murder of Robert F. Kennedy.

Daily Life

Approximately 225 million telephones are in use throughout the world.

Daily Life

The U.S. government removes cyclamates (artificial sweeteners) from the market; laboratory experiments link these food additives with cancer.

Daily Life

The History of Toys: Parker Brothers markets the first Nerf ball, a polyurethane foam ball that is safe for indoor play. By year's end, more than four million Nerf balls are sold.

Daily Life

Fashion: Pants suits become acceptable for everyday wear by women.

Popular Culture

The Beatles: The Beatles begin recording their final album, entitled "Abbey Road," returning to the EMI studios in West London and the production team led by George Martin (1926- ). It proves to be a relatively smooth and peaceful production and a highly acclaimed album. Lennon announces to the other Beatles that he will be leaving the band just before that album's release but is persuaded to remain quiet in public.

Popular Culture

Katherine Hepburn (1907-2003) and Barbara Streisand (1942- ) share the Best Actress Oscar; Hepburn breaks the record as the only actress winning three such awards.

Popular Culture

The Rolling Stones release an album and a movie, both entitled Gimme Shelter.

Reform

American Protest Music: “One Tin Soldier” is written by Dennis Lambert and Brian Potter during the Vietnam War.

Reform

American Protest Music: “Blowing in the Wind” is written by Bob Dylan (1941- ) during the Vietnam War.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: California adopts the nation’s first “no fault” divorce law, allowing divorce by mutual consent.

Government

The Postal Service, an independent agency, replaces the Post Office Department.

Government

Railroad History: Congress passes the Rail Passenger Service Act creating Amtrak, which today serves more than 20 million customers annually on its national network of intercity trains and employs 23,000 people.

Government

The National Air Quality Control Act calls for a 90% reduction in automobile pollution.

Science

Lysosomes, structures in the human cell, are synthesized.

Medicine

After great success as an experimental treatment for Parkinson’s disease, L-dopa is approved as a prescription drug.

Medicine

Heart pacemakers powered by nuclear energy are used for the first time in France; the device is estimated to work 10 years before needing to be refueled.

Medicine

Vaccines: First vaccine for Rubella (German measles) is used.

Inventions

Computers: Bell Labs develops Unix. (Unix will become the dominant operating system of high end microcomputers, or workstations).

Inventions

Transportation: The first jumbo jet is invented.

Inventions

Bell Telephone invents the Picturephone.

Technology

Japan becomes the fourth country to put a satellite into orbit.

Technology

GE synthesizes a gem-quality diamond.

Education

Reports show that “Sesame Street,” a nationwide TV program, helps to improve skills of preschool children.

Education

Higher Education: The University of California charges tuition for the first time in the school’s 102-year history.

Education

Civil Rights Movement: The struggle for an end to racial discrimination continues. Nationally, the Charlotte-Mecklenburg schools in North Carolina were ordered to desegregate under a court ordered mandatory busing plan.

Education

Civil Rights Movement: Seattle becomes the largest city to voluntarily enter into a mandatory busing program. The Seattle School District continues mandatory busing until 1996.

Arts and Letters

Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn (1918- ) wins the Nobel Prize for literature.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Hemingway’s (1899-1961) "Island in the Stream" is published posthumously.

Discovery

Space Exploration: When an oxygen tank bursts on the way to the moon, Apollo 13 astronauts make the famous announcement, “Houston, we’ve got a problem.”

Discovery

Israeli archeologists uncover the first evidence of the destruction of Jerusalem by Roman troops in A.D. 70.

Daily Life

20 million Americans take part in activities and demonstrations against pollution to celebrate Earth Day.

Daily Life

Hospital care costs reach an average of $81 per day.

Sports

Women in Sports: Just 294,000 American high school girls take part in interscholastic sports.

Popular Culture

Women’s Firsts: Women and Sports: Horse Racing: Diane Crump becomes the first female jockey to ride in the Kentucky Derby.

Popular Culture

The Beatles: The band officially brakes up.

Popular Culture

“Doonesbury,” a satirical comic strip created by Gary Trudeau (1948-), has its debut in 30 newspapers.

Social Issues

Polution: The National Air Quality Control Act calls for a 90% reduction in automobile pollution.

Reform

Anti-War Movement: The National Guard troops fire on 1000 antiwar protestors at Kent State University in Ohio; 4 students are killed. U.S. withdraws more troops from Vietnam.

Reform

1970's Protest Music: The Coca-Cola Coke Company integrates their original song “I’d Like to Teach the World to Sing”, sung by The Hillside Singers, in their commercial advertisements.

Law

Education: The Supreme Court upholds the busing of children to integrate public schools where state laws have allowed segregation.

Law

The New York Times publishes classified Pentagon papers about the U.S.’s involvement in Vietnam. The Supreme Court upholds the right of the Times and the Washington Post to publish the papers.

Law

The Twenty-Sixth Amendment to the Constitution, lowering the voting age to 18, is passed by Congress, ratified by two-thirds of the states, and added to the Constitution.

Government

Idi Amin (1925-2003) becomes dictator of Uganda.

Government

East Pakistan proclaims its independence, taking the name Bangladesh.

Science

C.H. Li synthesizes a human growth hormone.

Technology

Astronaut Alan B. Shepard (1923-1998) hits three golf balls on the moon during the Apollo 14 mission.

Arts and Letters

Drama: Neil Simon (1927-) writes the play The Prisoner of Second Avenue.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Philip Roth (1933- ) publishes the political satire "Our Gang."

Nixon, Pat

White House Wedding: Tricia Nixon (1946 - ), daughter of Patricia (1912-1993) and Richard Nixon (1913-1994) marries Edward F. Cox (1946 -) in the White House.

Economics

The Ford Motor Company establishes its North American Automotive Operations, consolidating U.S., Canadian, and Mexican operations more than two decades ahead of the North American Free Trade Agreement.

Discovery

Women''s Firsts: Canadian Fran Phipps becomes the first woman to reach the North Pole.

Discovery

Egyptian scientists discover drawings that date back to 6000 B.C. in caves in Egypt’s western desert.

Discovery

Space Exploration: Mariner 9 orbits Mars and returns 6876 photographs of the planet’s surface.

Daily Life

Crime and Punishment: Charles Manson is found guilty of murdering Sharon Tate and six others in California.

Daily Life

Cigarette advertisements are banned from television.

Sports

Boxing: Joe Frazier (1944- ) defeats Muhammad Ali (1942- ) (Cassius Clay) to win the world heavyweight boxing championship in New York City. It is Ali’s first lost after 31 professional wins.

Sports

Baseball: Henry "Hank" Aaron (1934- ) hits 600th career home run, the 3rd player ever to reach this mark.

Sports

Women''s Firsts: Women in Sports: Billie Jean King becomes the first woman athlete to win more than $100,000 in a single season in any sport. She is the only woman to have won US singles titles on grass, clay, carpet and hard court.

Popular Culture

British rock musician Elton John (1947- ) achieves superstar status with his albums, "Tumbleweed Connection" and "Madman Across the Water."

Religion

The “Jesus movement” is a highly publicized part of religion in America.

Reform

Civil Rights Movement: Ten black activists are convicted of firebombing a Wilmington, Delaware store and draw prison terms of 29-34 years.

Reform

Women''s Suffrage Movement: Women in Switzerland are finally granted suffrage.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: Phillips v. Martin Marietta Corporation, 400 U.S. 542 (1971): The U.S. Supreme Court outlaws the practice of private employers refusing to hire women with pre-school children.

Reform

Peace Corps: In July 1971, President Nixon (1913-1994) brought the Peace Corps under the umbrella agency, ACTION. Peace Corps would remain under ACTION until President Jimmy Carter (1924-) declared it fully autonomous in a 1979 executive order. This independent status would be further secured when Congress passed legislation in 1981 to make the organization an independent federal agency.

Law

Capital Punishment: The Supreme Court rules that the death penalty as administered in the U.S. is “cruel and unusual punishment” and therefore unconstitutional.

Law

Women's Rights Movement: The "Equal Rights Amendment" or ERA, a proposed Constitutional Amendment prohibiting sex discrimination against women, is passed by Congress and sent to the states for ratification.

Politics

Richard M. Nixon (1913-1994) is re-elected as President of the United States, as is Vice President Spiro Agnew (1918-1996).

Government

President Richard Nixon (1913-1994) becomes the first American president to visit China.

Government

Britain and China resume diplomatic relations after 22 years; Britain withdraws is consulate from Taiwan.

War

The military draft ends and all membership is on a volunteer basis.

Science

The Nobel Prize in Chemistry goes to C. Anfinsen, Stanford Moore, and William Stein for their molecular studies of proteins and enzymes.

Science

12 western European countries agree upon the establishment of a European Molecular Laboratory. The intent of the lab is to study the molecular basis of life.

Medicine

The controversy over whether smoking causes a pregnant woman to have a smaller baby continues.

Inventions

The History of Toys: Magnavox introduces Odyssey, the first video game machine, featuring a primitive form of paddle ball. Other companies soon invested in the video game business and, by 1976, hockey, tennis, and squash were available.

Technology

President Nixon (1913-1994) orders the development of the space shuttle.

Education

Women's Rights Movement: Title IX (Public Law 92-318) of the Education Amendments prohibits sex discrimination in all aspects of education programs that receive federal support.

Education

Women’s Colleges: Women were among the leaders of the struggle for achieving civil rights for minorities, and they compared their situation once more to that of the minority groups. One response to the activism by women was the implementation of virtually universal coeducation in 1972.

Education

Libraries: The Martin Luther King Memorial Library opens in Washington, replacing the old District of Columbia Central Public Library.

Economics

Women’s Firsts: Juanita Kreps (1921- …) becomes the first woman director of the New York Stock Exchange. She later becomes the first woman appointed Secretary of Commerce.

Economics

Personal Computers: The People's Computer Company is founded.

Discovery

Japanese soldier Shoichi Yokoi (1915-1997) is discovered in Guam, having spent 28 years hiding in the jungle thinking World War II was still going on.

Discovery

Richard Leakey (1944-), British anthropologist, discovers a 2.5 million-year-old human skull in northern Kenya, Africa.

Discovery

Pioneer 10 is launched to explore the asteroid belt and Jupiter.

Daily Life

China gives President Richard Nixon (1913-1994) two giant pandas.

Daily Life

The FDA proposes a ban on the use of antibiotics used to fatten cattle and other animals.

Sports

The U.S. tennis team wins the Davis Cup for the 5th straight year.

Sports

Women in Sports: Congress passes Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972. “No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subject to discrimination under any education program or activities receiving Federal financial assistance.”

Sports

Women in Sports: Women''s Rights Movement: The New York City Court of Appeals upholds a woman’s right to be an umpire in professional baseball.

Popular Culture

Ira Levin (1929-2007) publishes "The Stepford Wives."

Religion

Women’s Firsts: Judaism: Sally Jean Priesand (1948- …) is ordained in Cincinnati, Ohio, as the first woman rabbi in the United States.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: In Eisenstadt v. Baird, 405 U.S. 438 (1972), the Supreme Court rules that the right to privacy encompasses an unmarried person's right to use contraceptives.

Law

Women's Rights Movement: In the "Roe v. Wade" decision, the Supreme Court legalizes abortion.

Government

Conservation: The Endangered Species Act prohibits the federal government from supporting any activities or projects that may be harmful to any endangered species.

Government

Vice President Spiro Agnew (1918-1996) is forced to resign his office on Justice Department charges of corruption in ofice. Under the newly ratified 25th Amendment, Gerald Ford (1913- ) is appointed Vice President.

War

Vietnam War: President Nixon (1913-1994) orders halt to offensive operations in North Vietnam.

War

Vietnam War: The Vietnam War peace accords are signed in Paris.

Science

Scientists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology determine the structure of transfer-RNA (tRNA).

Science

The Center for UFO Studies is established in Evanston, Illinois.

Medicine

Monocytes, a type of white blood cells, are proposed as a key to conquering cancer.

Medicine

Marijuana is used as a treatment for glaucoma.

Medicine

Vaccines: Rabies vaccine is developed.

Arts and Letters

Architecture: The 110-story World Trade Center in New York City is completed and briefly becomes the tallest building in the world.

Arts and Letters

George Lucas (1944- ) directs American Graffiti, a film that causes a wave of 1950’s nostalgia.

Arts and Letters

Billy Joel (1949- ) releases the Piano Man album.

Arts and Letters

Stamps: Valentine's Day "Love" stamps are first issued.

Ideas

Personal Computers: At the Lakeside prep school in Washington State, Bill Gates (1955- ) tells a friend "I'm going to make my first million by the time I'm 25.”

Johnson, Lady Bird

Lyndon B. Johnson (1908-1973) dies at age 64.

Economics

Congress approves the Alaskan pipeline.

Economics

The Ford Motor Company is fined $7 million for violating the Clean Air Act by improperly servicing 1973 model cars during tests for emission controls.

Discovery

Pioneer 11 is launched to fly by Jupiter and Saturn.

Discovery

A “cold star” is discovered that has 30,000 times more energy than the Sun. Scientists think that this star is in the early stage of development.

Daily Life

Crime and Punishment: 14 states restore the death penalty.

Daily Life

The History of Toys: Dungeons & Dragons is invented by Dave Arneson and Gary Gygax.

Sports

Baseball: Baseball’s American League adopts the “designated hitter” rule, which allows another player to bat for the pitcher.

Sports

Football: The Miami Dolphins become the first NFL team to go undefeated and have a perfect season by beating the Washington Redskins in Super Bowl VII.

Popular Culture

George Lucas (1944- ) directs "American Graffiti," a film that causes a wave of 1950’s nostalgia.

Popular Culture

Billy Joel (1949- ) releases the "Piano Man" album.

Religion

Presbyterians form a new church, the National Presbyterian Church.

Religion

Judaism: Conservative Jews allow women in the minyan- 10 or more adult Jews are required for communal worship.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: Pittsburgh Press v. Pittsburgh Commission on Human Relations, 413 U.S. 376 (1973): The U.S. Supreme Court bans sex-segregated “help wanted” advertising as a violation of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 as amended.

Law

In "United States vs. Nixon," the Supreme Court rules that presidential executive privilege is not unlimited.

Government

The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) is charged with foreign and domestic abuse of its power.

Government

Stamps: The first U.S. self adhesive stamp is issued.

Government

Scandal: President Richard M. Nixon (1913-1994) resigns the Presidency in the wake of the Watergate scandal; he is the only President to resign the office; Vice President Gerald R. Ford (1913- )is inaugurated as the nation's 38th President. Nelson A. Rockefeller (1908-1979) becomes the nation's 41st Vice President.

Science

The National Academy of Sciences urges a ban on genetic experiments with bacteria, especially those involving E. coli, a helpful type of bacteria that lives in the intestines.

Medicine

High-energy neutrons, produced in cyclotrons, are used to treat cancer.

Medicine

A government report indicates that moderate drinkers live longer than nondrinkers. It also states that heavy drinkers have higher rates of mouth, throat, and liver cancer.

Medicine

Vinyl chloride, commonly used in making plastics, is shown to cause cancer.

Education

Civil Rights Movement: The Boston school committee rejects a court-ordered busing plan for desegregation.

Education

Women's Rights Movement: The Women’s Educational Equity Act, drafted by Arlene Horowitz and introduced by Representative Patsy Mink (D-HI), funds the development of nonsexist teaching materials and model programs that encourage full educational opportunities for girls and women.

Education

Public Education: In Milliken v. Bradley, a Supreme Court made up of Richard Nixon's appointees rules that schools may not be desegregated across school districts. This effectively legally segregates students of color in inner-city districts from white students in wealthier white suburban districts.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Peter Benchley (1940-) publishes "Jaws," a novel about a huge shark that terrorizes a Long Island Beach resort.

Arts and Letters

Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn (1918- ), Nobel Prize winner in literature, is deported from the Soviet Union.

Economics

The U.S. ends all price and wage controls.

Economics

The U.S. is hit by a recession.

Discovery

Large quantities of historical manuscripts, philosophical works, and medical texts more than 2000 year old are discovered in ancient tombs in China.

Sports

Baseball: Hank Aaron (1934- ) hits the 715th home run of his career, breaking Babe Ruth’s record.

Sports

Baseball: Little League Baseball Inc. bars foreign teams from future Little League World Series and accepts female players into the league.

Sports

The U.S. Olympic Committee adopts a bill of rights for athletes.

Sports

Baseball: Black Athletes: Frank Robinson (1935- ), of the Cleveland Indians, is the first black manager in professional baseball.

Sports

Women in Sports: Football: The inaugural season of the first women''s professional football league kicks off with seven US teams.

Popular Culture

"Happy Days" premiers on television.

Popular Culture

The popular rock groups of the time are Chicago, Steeley Dan, Yes, Jefferson Starship, Santana, The Eagles, and Utopia.

Popular Culture

Mel Brooks produces "Blazing Saddles," a parody of westerns.

Popular Culture

The Beatles: A jam session between John Lennon (1940-1980) and Paul McCartney (1942- ) is recorded on March 31, 1974, when McCartney visits Lennon in Los Angeles, California.

Religion

Pope John Paul VI (1912-1978) opens the Holy Year of the Roman Catholic Church, the 25th since 1450 (The first Holy year was proclaimed in 1300).

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: Housing discrimination on the basis of sex and credit discrimination against women are outlawed by Congress.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: Cleveland Board of Education v. LaFleur, 414 U.S. 632 (1974), determines it is illegal to force pregnant women to take maternity leave on the assumption they are incapable of working in their physical condition.

Government

Native Americans: The Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act give Native Americans more control in administering federal programs and services to their people.

Government

Scandal: John Mitchell (1913-1988), H. R. Haldeman (1926-1993), and John Ehrlichman (1925-1999) are convicted of obstruction of justice in the Watergate affair.

War

Civil war begins in Lebanon when gunmen kill 4 Christian Phalangists who retaliate by killing 27 Palestinians.

War

Vietnam War: The Vietnam War ends with South Vietnam’s surrender to North Vietnam.

Medicine

Heart valves in pigs are used to replace defective valves in human hearts.

Medicine

The National Cancer Institute links cancer with pollution.

Technology

Personal Computers: Bill Gates (1955-) and Paul Allen (1953- ) write to MITS, saying they have a BASIC language for the Intel 8080 processor. They propose licensing it for use on the Altair in exchange for royalty payments. (They then spend the next eight weeks writing the software).

Education

Native Americans: Native American Education: The Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act gives Native Americans more control in administering federal programs and services to their people.

Ideas

E. O. Wilson publishes "Sociobiology: The New Synthesis," which argues that genes control social behavior patterns.

Roosevelt, Eleanor

Lives of the First Ladies: Anna Eleanor Roosevelt Dall Boettiger Halsted (1906-1975), daughter of Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt, dies December 1 from cancer.

Economics

Insurance companies drop malpractice insurance coverage for doctors because the losses in suits are so high.

Discovery

University of California astronomers discover a new galaxy that is at least 10 times larger than the Milky Way and about 8-million light years away from earth.

Discovery

Paleontologists discover the oldest American fossil- a 620-year-old marine worm.

Discovery

Viking 1 and 2 are both launched and scheduled to land on Mars one year later.

Daily Life

The Metric Conversion Act suggests that a voluntary change be made to the metric system.

Daily Life

The National Association of Broadcasters agrees to assign a two-hour period of time to programs suitable for family viewing.

Sports

Women in Sports: Chris Evert (1954- ) wins $40,000, the highest prize in the history of women’s tennis, on the Virginia Slims Tour.

Sports

Basketball: The European basketball league finishes its first season; Israeli Sabres finishes in first place out of 5 teams.

Sports

Baseball: An arbitrator’s ruling leads to a modification of the reserve clause and the start of free agency. Baseball salaries begin to skyrocket.

Sports

Women in Sports: Title IX goes effect on June 21.

Popular Culture

"The Jeffersons" debuts on television; it is the first sitcom about an African American family.

Popular Culture

The film "Jaws" breaks box office records across the U.S. and causes a nationwide “Jawsmania.”

Popular Culture

The film "One Flew Over the Cuckoo''s Nest" is the first movie since 1934 to win the top four Oscars: Best Picture, Best Actor, Best Actress, and Best Director.

Popular Culture

"A Chorus Line" opens on Broadway.

Politics

James Callaghan (1912-2005) succeeds Harold Wilson as the British Prime Minister.

Politics

Jimmy Carter (1924 - ) is elected as the 39th President of the United States and Walter F. Mondale (1928- ) is elected the nation's 42nd Vice President.

Government

The U.S. celebrates the 200th anniversary of its independence. Six million people view the parade of tall ships from 31 countries on the Hudson River.

Government

The U.S. and the U.S.S.R. sign a treaty that limits the size of underground nuclear explosions. Some on-site inspection of compliance is approved for the first time.

Government

U.S. intelligence agencies are charged with unlawful investigation and surveillance of citizens.

Government

The U.S. vetoes the admission of Vietnam to the UN, reasoning that the Hanoi government has failed to account for 800 U.S. servicemen still mission in action.

Science

The chronon is selected as the smallest unit of time.

Science

The 143 members of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) develop methods to standardize weather data.

Medicine

Vaccines: A malaria-causing organism is cultured in the lab-this is the first step in developing a vaccine.

Medicine

Lyme arthritis, a new infectious form of arthritis, is discovered near Lyme, Connecticut. The disease is thought to be spread by virus-carrying insects.

Technology

Personal Computers: The Apple I computer board is sold in kit form, and delivered to stores by Steve Jobs (1955- ) and Steve Wozniak (1950- ); the price is: US$666.66.

Arts and Letters

Women’s Firsts: Sarah Caldwell (1924- …) becomes the first woman to conduct at New York's Metropolitan Opera House.

Arts and Letters

Literature: Kurt Vonnegut (1922- ) publishes "Slapstick."

Economics

Consolidated Railroad Corporation (Conrail), a private government-financed corporation, takes control of the freight service of six bankrupt Northeast railroads.

Economics

Personal Computers: In November, The trademark "Microsoft" is registered.

Discovery

Pioneer 10 travels through Saturn’s rings and heads toward a 1987 examination of Pluto.

Discovery

Viking 1 and Viking 2 land on Mars and begin sending back information about the planet’s surface.

Daily Life

Transportation: A Pan-American airliner completes the world’s longest non-stop commercial flight (8,088 miles in over 13 hours of travel).

Daily Life

The History of Toys: Nolan Bushnell sells his video game company, Atari, to Warner Brothers. Atari''s popular Pong and Super Pong video tennis games soon gave way to a home video cartridge system that ran full-color games, from baseball to Pacman.

Popular Culture

Barbara Walters (1929- ) becomes the first female network television news anchor.

Popular Culture

Stevie Wonder (1950- ) releases the immensely popular album, "Songs in the Key of Life."

Popular Culture

"Rocky," a film starring Sylvester Stallone (1946- ), wins the Oscar for Best Picture.

Popular Culture

Erma Bombeck (1927-1996), humorist, publishes 'Life is Always Greener Over the Septic Tank."

Popular Culture

Women's Firsts: Barbara Walters (1929- ) becomes the first female network television news anchor.

Religion

6 women in British Columbia and Ontario, Canada are ordained as priests in the Anglican Church.

Reform

Women win 13 of 32 Rhodes Scholarships awarded to Americans; this is the first time since the scholarships were made in 1902 that women are eligible recipients.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: General Elec. Co v. Gilbert, 429 U. S. 125 (1976), the Supreme Court upholds women’s right to unemployment benefits during the last three months of pregnancy.

Government

President Carter (1924- ) makes “human rights” a part of U.S. foreign policy.

Government

Jimmy Carter (1924 - ) is inaugurated as the 39th President of the United States and Walter F. Mondale (1928- ) is inaugurated as the nation's 42nd Vice President.

Government

The Justice Department investigates alleged illegal bribery by South Korean officials to influence members of Congress.

Government

President Carter (1924- ) pardons most Vietnam War and draft evaders.

Government

Congress creates a new cabinet-level Department of Engineering.

Science

Methanogens are identified as a totally separate and previously unknown form of life that existed about 3.5 million years ago.

Medicine

After extensive hearings, the FDA declares that laetrile is not a vitamin and is of no value in treating cancer.

Medicine

The FDA claims that saccharin may cause cancer.

Inventions

Computers: Bally completes designs of a home computer.

Technology

Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 are launched on a journey that will bring them near Jupiter and Saturn in 1979 and 1980.

Economics

High oil consumption in the U.S. makes energy conservation necessary (energy crisis).

Economics

Personal Computers: The first Computer Shack franchise is opened in Morristown, New Jersey. 112 people visit in the first day.

Discovery

Astronomers aboard NASA’s Airborne Observatory discover rings around Uranus.

Daily Life

Crime and Punishment: Gary Gilmore (?-1977) becomes the first person executed in the U.S. since the death penalty was reintroduced.

Daily Life

Disasters: The greatest aviation disaster in history kills 542 people when two planes collide on a runway in the Canary Islands.

Daily Life

Travel bans on U.S. citizens to Cuba, Vietnam, Cambodia, and North Korea are lifted.

Daily Life

Personal Computers: Total shipments of personal computers worldwide during the year total 48,000.

Daily Life

The History of Toys: Kenner Toys introduces a line of Star Wars action figures, capitalizing on the popularity of George Lucas''s blockbuster film. They dominate the action figure market.

Sports

Baseball: The St. Louis outfielder Lou Brock (1939- ) sets the new base-stealing record of 893.

Popular Culture

The film "Saturday Night Fever" helps popularize disco dance music.

Popular Culture

George Lucas (1944- ) directs "Star Wars," a film that signals the beginning of a new, more polished science-fiction genre of films.

Religion

John Neumann (1903-1957) is made a saint in the Roman Catholic Church; he is the first American male to be selected.

Religion

Americans explore forms of spiritualism: 6 million are active in transcendental meditation; 5 million practice yoga; 3 million follow the charismatic movement; 3 million involved in mysticism; and 2 million in Eastern religions.

Religion

The Roman Catholic Church prohibits ordination of women as priests.

Government

Congress extends ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to 1982.

Government

The U.S. and Communist China establish full diplomatic relations.

Government

President Carter (1924- ) invokes the Taft-Harley Act to end the coal strike.

Government

Stamps: A new 15-cent stamp goes into use after its approval by the Postal Rate Commission.

Government

Electrification: Congress passes the Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA), which spurs the growth of nonutility unregulated power generation.

Science

Chromosomes are discovered in parts of the cell other than the nucleus.

Science

The Plasma Physics Laboratory at Princeton University conducts controlled fusion experiments.

Medicine

Vitamin C is proposed as a cancer-fighting drug.

Medicine

The AMA concludes a 14-year study that shows that cigarette smoking causes heart disease and may cause cancer.

Technology

Texas Instruments introduces magnetic bubble memories for computers.

Education

Higher Education: Civil Rights Movement: In Regents of California v. Bakke, the Supreme Court considered whether affirmative action programs violated the Equal Protection Clause. Without a clear majority, the Court held that it was permissible to use race as a factor in school admissions, but that the rigid racial quotas used by the University did violate the 14th Amendment.

Education

Public Education: Education of Women: The federal judge in Ohio rules that high school girls should not be prevented from participating with boys on the same sports teams.

Education

Public Education: The so-called "taxpayers' revolt" leads to the passage of Proposition 13 in California, and copy-cat measures like Proposition 2-1/2 in Massachusetts. These propositions freeze property taxes, which are a major source of funding for public schools. As a result, in twenty years California drops from first in the nation in per-student spending in 1978 to number 43 in 1998.

Education

Native Americans: Native American Education: Higher Education: The federal Tribally Controlled Community College Assistance Act provides the

Education

basis for a system of higher education on or near Indian reservations, which allows young people to go to college without leaving their families.

Arts and Letters

Literature: John Irving (1942-) publishes "The World According to Garp."

Economics

The Ford Motor Company celebrates its 75th anniversary. Celebrations were very much in order, and they took place at World Headquarters in Dearborn, Michigan as well as at locations throughout the world.

Discovery

James Cristy, discovers Charon, a moon of Pluto.

Daily Life

Education: The Federal Communication Commission studies children’s television to see if the TV industry is showing a reasonable amount of children’s shows, including educational programming.

Daily Life

Crayola: The first box of Crayola markers is introduced in 8 bright, bold colors.

Sports

Women''s Firsts: Women in Sports: Black Athletes: Lillian Greene-Chamberlain, the first African-American woman distance runner in international events is named as the first woman to be director for Physical Education and Sport Programs for UNESCO.

Popular Culture

Dolly Parton (1946- ) wins the Country Music Association’s Entertainer of the Year Award for the song “Here You Come Again.”

Popular Culture

"Star Wars" is all-time leader in worldwide film rentals; it takes in $202 million and passes revenue records previously set by "Jaws."

Social Issues

Stem-Cell Research: Widespread controversy surrounds claims that a human being has been cloned.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: The Pregnancy Discrimination Act bans employment discrimination against pregnant women.

Government

Dictator Idi Amin (1928-2003)of Uganda is overthrown.

Government

Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini (1900-1989) returns to Tehran after 15 years of exile; Iran is proclaimed an Islamic Republic.

War

President Sadat (1918-1981) of Egypt and Prime Minister Begin (1913-1982 ) of Israel sign a peace treaty at the White House, ending 30 years of war.

War

Pakistan Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (1928-1979) is executed by the military.

War

Vietnamese forces capture the Cambodian capital of Phnom Penh, overthrowing Pol Pot’s (1928- ) Khmer Rouge government.

Science

MIT researchers discover that DNE molecules spiral to the left, not to the right as was previously believed.

Medicine

Doctors in Maryland use a metal cylinder to replace a section of a woman’s spine removed earlier because of cancer.

Education

The new Cabinet-level Department of Education is established.

Economics

Congress approves a $1.5 billion federal loan guarantee plan for the Chrysler Corporation; this is the largest government bailout of a U.S. company.

Economics

The Department of Energy sues nine large U.S. oil companies for allegedly over-charging customers nearly $1billion since 1973.

Discovery

A black hole is discovered in the center of the Milky Way.

Daily Life

Disasters: A nuclear power accident occurs at Three-Mile Island, near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.

Daily Life

Because of a major shortage, gasoline sales on odd-even days are instituted in many states.

Popular Culture

Elton John (1947- ) is the first rock star from the West to tour the U.S.S.R.

Religion

Pope John Paul II (1920- ) visits Poland; this is the first time a pope has visited a Communist country.

Religion

Mother Teresa (1910-1997), of India, is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for her work among the sick and the poor.

Politics

Ronald W. Reagan (1911-2004) is elected the 40th President of the U.S. and George H. W. Bush (1924- ) is elected the nation's 43rd Vice President.

Politics

Voters in Quebec reject separatism.

Politics

Third Parties: U.S. Representative John B. Anderson of Illinois loses the Republican nomination for President to Ronald Reagan (1911-2004), who defeats Democratic President Jimmy Carter (1924- …). Anderson runs as an Independent, and gains 6 percent of the popular vote but no electoral votes.

Government

Immigration: The Refugee Act redefines criteria and procedures for admitting refugees.

Government

President Carter (1924- ) signs Crude Oil Windfall Profits Tax; this is possibly the largest tax ever imposed on an industry.

Science

Volunteers at Duke University emerge from a pressure tank after 28 days, setting a world record for simulating a dive 2132 feet below sea level.

Medicine

Vaccines: New York Blood Center scientists report finding a successful, experimental vaccine against hepatitis B.

Technology

In California more than 17,000 wind machines, ranging in output from 20 to 350 kilowatts, are installed on wind farms.

Education

Civil Rights Movement: By the late 1980s, the rising Latino population increased the complexity of desegregation issues, and there was growing objection to busing as a solution for segregation.

Education

UNESCO reports that almost 1/3 of the world’s population are illiterate.

Arts and Letters

Painting: The Museum of Modern Art in New York city shows “Pablo Picasso: A Retrospective.” It is the first time the near 1000 items, representative of the artists work in various media, are shown together.

Clinton, Hillary

Chelsea Victoria Clinton (1980- ), daughter of William and Hillary Clinton, is born February 27.

Economics

Chrysler Corporation receives government-guaranteed $400 million loan.

Economics

Gold bullion prices soar to record heights on international markets, reaching $835 an ounce on London’s market.

Economics

Government supported United States Synthetic Fuels Corporation is created to develop synthetic energy sources.

Discovery

A major diamond field is discovered in Western Australia.

Daily Life

Disasters: The U.S. declares a state of emergency at the Love Canal in Niagara Falls, N.Y., an area contaminated by toxic chemical waste.

Sports

In a major upset, the U.S. Olympic hockey team defeats the Soviets 4-3 at Lake Placid, New York.

Sports

Women in Sports: The Women's Sports Foundation establishes the International Women's Sports Hall of Fame.

Popular Culture

The Beatles: On December 8, 1980, John Lennon (1940-1980) is murdered in front of his New York City apartment by a mentally deranged fan, Mark David Chapman (1955-), forever crushing any hope of a Beatles reunion.

Religion

Pope John Paul II (1920-2005) reaffirms his opposition to divorce at the synod of Roman Catholic bishops in Rome. The Vatican also condemns euthanasia.

Law

Women’s Firsts: Sandra Day O'Connor (1930- …) is appointed by President Reagan (1911-2004) to the Supreme Court, making her its first woman justice.

Government

Ronald W. Reagan (1911-2004) is inaugurated as the 40th President of the U.S. and George H. W. Bush (1924- ) is inaugurated as the nation's 43rd Vice President. Ronald Reagan is the oldest President to take office (69 years and 349 days).

Government

Chilean President Augusto Pinochet (1915-) is sworn in for an eight-year-term as president.

War

52 American hostages seized from the American Embassy in Tehran are released after 444 days in captivity.

Science

Amid growing debate over genetic engineering, the German drug firm Hoechst invests $50 million in DNA research at Massachusetts General hospital in Boston.

Science

The first test-tube baby is born in London.

Medicine

Scientists identify the virus that causes the fatal condition called A.I.D.S. (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome).

Medicine

Vaccines: First vaccine for Hepatitis B is used.

Technology

The space shuttle is launched.

Technology

The first sun-powered aircraft flies across the English Channel. Earlier attempts failed because of cloudy skies.

Technology

Personal Computers: IBM introduces its model of the personal computer (PC), destined to revolutionize office automation and move corporations away from mainframe computers.

Arts and Letters

Literature: John Updike wins the National Book Critics Circle Award, American Book Award, and a Pulitzer Prize for "Rabbit is Rich."

Arts and Letters

Painting: Italy begins a $3 million restoration of Michelangelo’s frescoes in the Sistine Chapel.

Roosevelt, Eleanor

John Aspinwall Roosevelt (1916-1981), son of Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt, dies of a heart attack on April 27.

Bush, Laura

Barbara Pierce Bush (1981- ), daughter of George W. and Laura Bush, is born the first of fraternal twins on November 25.

Bush, Laura

Jenna Welch Bush (1981- ), daughter of George W. and Laura Bush, is born the second of fraternal twins on November 25.

Reagan, Nancy

President Ronald Reagan (1911-2204) is shot in the chest by John Hinckley (1955- ) as he leaves a Washington hotel.

Economics

Honolulu has the highest cost of living of any American city. Rising prices are driven by wealthy tourists and development financed by Japanese investors.

Daily Life

African elephants are decimated by poachers of ivory, now selling at $34 per pound.

Popular Culture

The Rolling Stones play for 2 million fans in a smash U.S. tour. Scalpers command as much as $500 for a pair of $15 seats.

Popular Culture

Barbara Mandrell is named Entertainer of the Year by the Country Music Association amid a popular resurgence of country music.

Popular Culture

Film star Meryl Streep receives wide-spread critical acclaim for her portrayal of the mysterious Sarah in "The French Lieutenant’s Woman."

Popular Culture

The Beatles: The three surviving Beatles reunite for the first time since the break-up for George Harrison's (1943-2001) tribute to fallen Beatle John Lennon (1940-1980) "All Those Years Ago".

Religion

Pope John Paul II is shot and seriously wounded as he greets worshippers in St. Peter’s Square, Vatican City.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: The U.S. Supreme Court rules that excluding women from the draft is constitutional.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: Kirchberg v. Feenstra, 450 U.S. 455, 459-60 (1981), overturns state laws designating a husband “head and master” with unilateral control of property owned jointly with his wife.

Government

President Reagan (1911-2005) proposes that the U.S. and the Soviet Union reduce their nuclear arsenals by one-third.

Government

Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START) begin in Geneva, Switzerland.

Government

President Reagan (1911-2005) orders reinstatement of the U.S. military draft registration for 18-year olds.

Government

A government survey of income tax returns shows the IRS is twice as likely as taxpayers to make mathematical errors.

Medicine

Medical history is made at the University of Utah Medical Center in Salt Lake City when doctors successfully implant a permanent artificial heart designed by Dr. Robert K. Jarvik in 61-year old Barney Clark.

Technology

The space shuttle Columbia lands safely after orbiting the earth for 7 days.

Education

Civil Rights Movement: In the Bob Jones University v. U.S. case, the Court held that racial discrimination in education violated a “fundamental national policy” and permitted the IRS to withhold tax exempt status from private schools with discriminatory policies.

Education

Evolution: A federal judge in Arkansas rules it unconstitutional to require schools to teach “creationism” if they teach the theory of evolution.

Economics

The AT&T Bell System telephone monopoly agreed to divest itself of 22 Bell System companies and split itself into seven “Baby Bells.”

Economics

Personal Computers: Apple Computer becomes the first personal computer firm to reach $1 billion in annual sales.

Economics

The Dow Jones industrial average tops the 1000 level for the first time as Wall Street is bullish over sliding interest rates.

Discovery

Paleontologists in Antarctica make the first discovery of mammal fossils on the continent.

Daily Life

EPCOT Center- The Experimental Prototype Community of Tomorrow- opens at Disney world in Florida.

Daily Life

Under a geodesic dome called Spaceship Earth, EPCOT offers educational exhibits of the future.

Sports

Football: National Football League players go on strike against the league’s 28 teams, demanding a share of the gate and TV revenues. They settle 2 months later, receiving relatively little of what they asked for.

Sports

Women in Sports: The NCAA adds nine women's national collegiate championships during the 1981-82 school year. Lacrosse is one of the original sports. Massachusetts wins the championship over Trenton State, 9 to 6.

Popular Culture

Critics and audiences rave over "Cats," the British musical that makes its Broadway debut. Andrew Lloyd Webber based the show on poet T.S. Eliot’s "Old Possum’s Book of Practical Cats."

Religion

Ending some 450 years of absolute separation between the Roman Catholic and Anglican churches, Pope John Paul II and the Archbishop of Canterbury join in an emotional religious service. As a result Britain and the Vatican resume diplomatic relations.

Reform

Peace Corps: At this time, the Peace Corps began branching out past its traditional concerns of education- and agriculture-related projects. For the first time, a large number of conservative and Republican volunteers joined the contingent of overseas volunteers, and the organization continued to reflect the evolving political and social conditions in the United States.

Politics

President Ronald Reagan (1911-2004) refers to the Soviet Union as an “Evil Empire.”

War

Terrorism: Simultaneous suicide truck-bombings destroy both the French and the United States Marine Corps barracks in Beirut, killing 241 US servicemen, 58 French paratroopers and 6 Lebanese civilians.

Medicine

Health care officials assure a nervous public that there is little risk of catching AIDS via blood transfusions.

Technology

Apple Computer unveils a new computer device called a “mouse”; it allows users to point an arrow in order to access computer functions rather than entering complicated instructions on a keyboard.

Education

Public Education: A blue-ribbon panel publishes A Nation at Risk, finding that the nation's educational standards “are being eroded by a rising tide of mediocrity,” threatening the nation’s future.

Arts and Letters

The Nobel Prize for literature goes to Britain’s William Golding (1911-1993), author of "The Lord of the Flies."

Arts and Letters

American playwright Tennessee Williams (1911-1983) dies.

Economics

Cable television increasingly threatens the former monopoly of broadcast TV.

Economics

Video rental stores begin to attract an increasing amount of business.

Economics

Solar Electric Generating Stations (SEGs) producing as much as 13.8 megawatts are developed in California and sell electricity to the Southern California Edison Company.

Discovery

Women’s Firsts: Dr. Sally K. Ride (1951- …) becomes the first American woman to be sent into space.

Daily Life

The History of Toys: A Japanese company, Nintendo, brings the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES), a home video game system, to the United States. With fifty-two colors, realistic sound, and high-speed action, it catches the attention of retailers who were initially skittish due to Atari''s collapse.

Daily Life

Fifty million households tune in to the last episode of M*A*S*H.

Sports

For the first time in its 132-year history, the America’s Cup, yachting’s most prestigious prize, leaves the U.S. It is won by an Australian vessel that comes from behind in 4 races to beat the defending Liberty.

Religion

The National Council of the Churches of Christ issues a new Bible that no longer refers to God in masculine terms only. God is called either “Father”, “Mother”, or “The One.” References to “mankind” are replaced by “humankind”or “humanity.”

Reform

Civil Rights Movement: Chanting the theme of “Jobs, Peace, and Freedom,” some 250,000 Americans converge on Washington to mark the 20th anniversary of the 1963 civil rights march.

Law

The Supreme Court holds that exhibiting a publicly financed nativity scene does not violate the First Amendment.

Politics

Ronald Reagan (1911-2004) is re-elected as President of the U.S., as is George H. W. Bush (1924 -) as Vice President.

Government

The United States and the Vatican reestablish diplomatic relations after 117 years.

Government

Great Britain agrees to return Hong Kong to China in 1997 when Britain’s 99-year lease on the crown colony runs out.

Government

Civil Rights Movement: The Civil Rights Commission votes to end use of numerical quotas in employment promotions of African Americans.

Medicine

Nonsmokers can get cancer by inhaling smoke from smokers’ cigarettes declares the Surgeon General.

Technology

The compact disc (CD), developed by the Dutch company Phillips and Japan’s Sony, is hailed as the music-recording medium of the future.

Arts and Letters

Literature: George Orwell’s classic novel "1984" becomes a best seller once again; his grim forecasts about totalitarianism have not come to pass.

Economics

Crayola: The Crayola® brand becomes part of Hallmark Cards, Inc. of Kansas City, Mo., the world’s leader in social expression.

Sports

Women in Sports: Dorothy Hamill wins the first of four straight World Professional Figure Skating championships.

Sports

The Los Angeles Summer Olympic Games open with Hollywood glitz – an enormous symphony, a huge marching band, gospel singers, break dancers, and 84 pianists. The U.S. dominates the games, which are boycotted by the Soviet Union and some other Communist nations in retaliation for the U.S. boycott of Moscow’s 1980 games.

Popular Culture

Michael Jackson (1958-) is nominated for 12 Grammy Awards and "Thriller" becomes the best-selling album ever.

Popular Culture

Bruce Springsteen (1949-) stirs millions with "Born in the U.S.A.," an album featuring a song of the same name, reflecting his bittersweet view of U.S. society.

Religion

The National Conference of Catholic Bishops says that capitalism fails to provide a just economic system. Bishops cite homelessness and hunger in a wealthy nation and ask the government to play a bigger role in correcting the problems.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: In Roberts v. U.S. Jaycees, 468 U.S. 609 (1984), sex discrimination in membership policies of organizations, such as the Jaycees, is forbidden by the Supreme Court, opening many previously all-male organizations (Jaycees, Kiwanis, Rotary, Lions) to women.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: Hishon v. King and Spaulding, 467 U.S. 69 (1984): The U.S. Supreme Court rules that law firms may not discriminate on the basis of sex in promoting lawyers to partnership positions.

Law

The Supreme Court bars a moment of silence in public schools, declaring it fosters religious activity in schools, which was declared unconstitutional in 1962.

Government

Congress passes the Gramm-Rudman bill, requiring a balanced budget for the federal government by 1991.

Government

Mikhail Gorbachev becomes head of the Soviet Union, replacing Konstantin Chernenko.

Government

Ronald Reagan (1911-2004) is inaugurated as President of the U.S., as is George H. W. Bush (1924 -) as Vice President.

Government

In his State of the Union message, President Ronald Reagan (1911-2004) begins his second term by calling for reform in federal income tax policy.

Science

The world’s largest particle accelerator goes into operation in Batavia, Illinois.

Medicine

Obesity is called a major killer, particularly among those who are more than 20% overweight, a category that includes 34 million Americans.

Arts and Letters

Johann Sebastian Bach’s 300th birthday is marked by performances in his hometown of Leipzig, Germany, and dozens of other cities in Europe and the U.S.

Ideas

Tipper Gore (1948- ), wife of Tennessee Senator Albert Gore (1948- ), tries to clean up rock lyrics, urging warning labels on “offensive” albums. Rocker Frank Zappa (1940-1993) speaks out in opposition, calling it censorship.

Economics

Coca-Cola markets a controversial new formulation of its soft drink, but after sales plummet it brings back the original, now dubbed “Coke Classic.”

Discovery

Divers find the hull of the luxury liner Titanic, which hit an iceberg and sank in the North Atlantic in 1912. The vessel was in 12,00 feet of water.

Daily Life

Crime and Punishment: U.S. journalist Terry Anderson is kidnapped in Beirut; he was released 2,454 days later on December 4, 1991.

Daily Life

The cold snap of the century hits the U.S. citrus crop.

Daily Life

Women’s Firsts: Native Americans: Wilma Mankiller (1945- …) becomes the first woman chief of the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma.

Sports

Women''s Firsts: Women in sports: Libby Riddles (1956-), is the first woman to win the Iditarod.

Popular Culture

45 of the world’s top recording artists get together and record "We Are the World" to raise money for world hunger.

Popular Culture

Pop star Madonna captures a vast audience and makes her first movie, "Desperately Seeking Susan."

Social Issues

Philadelphia police try to subdue the radical group Move by dropping a bomb on its headquarters, causing extensive fires and 11 deaths.

Law

Chief Justices: President Ronald Reagan (1911-2004) nominates William H. Rehnquist as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court; he is confirmed by the Senate after considerable debate by a vote of 65-33. He serves in this position for nineteen years, until his death in 2005.

Government

Conservation: The federal government makes the environmental danger from toxic wastes a priority by enacting a $9 billion clean-up law.

Government

New federal legislation weakens the existing gun control law.

Government

President Ferdinand Marcos (1917-1989) flees the Philippines.

Government

Immigration: The Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) legalizes illegal aliens residing in the U.S. unlawfully since 1982.

War

President Ronald Reagan (1911-2004) authorizes and air attack on Libya for its terrorism, specifically the bombing of a West Berlin disco popular among American GI’s. Libyan assets are frozen, and U.S. trade with Libya is banned.

Medicine

After 620 days, the first artificial heart recipient dies.

Technology

Airplanes: Voyager, a lightweight experimental airplane, circles the Earth non-stop without refueling. Its 25,000 miles trip takes 9 days and uses 1500 gallons of fuel.

Education

Studies show that 13% of American adults are illiterate.

Economics

Manufacturing in the U.S. declines as a percentage of the gross national as industrial firms transfer production to lower wag countries; service industries increase in the national economy, creating 10 million jobs in 7 years.

Discovery

Disasters: The U.S. shuttle Challenger explodes 72 seconds after lifting off, killing all seven crew members aboard, including school teacher Christa McAuliffe (1948-1986).

Daily Life

Disasters: The worst nuclear power plant accident in history occurs at Chernobyl, near Kiev, U.S.S.R.

Daily Life

Holidays: Martin Luther King, Jr. Day is celebrated as a federal holiday for the first time.

Daily Life

The History of Toys: Artist Xavier Roberts introduces his Cabbage Patch Kids into the mass market. Each of the dolls comes with an adoption certificate and unique name. Although more than three million of the dolls are produced, supply cannot keep up with demand. Cabbage Patch Kids become the most successful new dolls in the history of the toy industry.

Sports

Women in Sports: Basketball: The three-point field goal is introduced in women''s basketball.

Popular Culture

The world’s largest shopping mall achieves success in Alberta, Canada. The West Edmonton Mall boasts 836 stores and 20 movie theatres, plus restaurants and rides.

Religion

Pope John Paul II (1920-2005) pays a historic visit to Rome’s main synagogue, a gesture seen as a step toward the Vatican’s recognition of Israel.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: In Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, 477 U.S. 57 (1986), the U.S. Supreme Court held that a hostile or abusive work environment can prove discrimination based on sex.

Government

President Ronald Reagan (1911-2004) and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev sign a treaty in Washington to eliminate short and medium range nuclear weapons.

Government

The Reagan administration proposes the government’s first trillion-dollar budget.

Science

University of California astronomers witness the birth of a galaxy containing 1 billion stars for the first time.

Science

A human growth hormone is transplanted in pig embryos to increase the size and value of hogs for slaughter, a procedure that stirs ethical and scientific debate.

Medicine

Surgeon Ben Carson (born September 18, 1951) leading a 70-member medical team in Germany, was the first to separate occipital craniopagus twins.

Technology

Expanded possible uses of superconductors make the news as a very promising scientific and technical revolution.

Arts and Letters

Painting: Van Gogh’s “Irises” is auctioned for a record $53.9 million at Sotheby’s in New York City. He painted it only days after entering a mental asylum in France.

Reagan, Nancy

First Lady Nancy Reagan (1921- ) undergoes a mastectomy after a biopsy reveals cancerous cells.

Economics

The Dow Jones industrial average plunges 508 points – 22.6%- on “Black Monday,” by far the largest one-day loss in history.

Economics

Japan’s Honda Motors sells 100,000 Acuras in the U.S., spurring Toyota and Nissan to bring out their luxury Lexus and Infiniti models.

Economics

The Ford Motor Company purchases the Hertz Corporation’s rental car business.

Daily Life

The History of Toys: Engineer Scott Stillinger invents the Koosh Ball in an effort to teach young children how to catch. He tied rubber bands together to make a small, easy-to-catch ball. The name "koosh" comes from the sound the ball makes as it lands in a person's hand.

Daily Life

At least 36 states pass laws against the breed of dog known as a “pit-bulls.” Owners are required to keep these dogs on leashes at all times while in public.

Sports

Al Unser wins his 4th Indianapolis 500 auto race.

Popular Culture

Aretha Franklin (1942-) becomes the first woman to be inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.

Popular Culture

"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs" is re-released by Disney on its 50th anniversary.

Popular Culture

The 10th anniversary of Elvis Presley’s death spurs TV specials, books, and the releases of new collections of his music.

Religion

Pope John Paul II (1920-2005) visits 9 U.S. cities in a 10-day tour.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: The U.S. Supreme Court upholds a voluntary affirmative action plan for public employees to correct sex discrimination.

Politics

George H. W. Bush (1924-) is elected 41st president of the U.S., and J. Danforth Quayle (1947 -) is elected as the 44th Vice President.

Government

Congress passes and President Reagan (1911-2004) signs a bill establishing the cabinet-level Department of Veterans Affairs.

Government

Immigration: The Civil Liberties Act provides compensation of $20,000 and a presidential apology to all Japanese-American survivors of the World War II internment camps.

War

Lieutenant Colonel Oliver L. North and Vice Admiral John M. Poindexter of the National Security Council are indicted on charges of conspiracy to defraud the United States for their role in the Iran-contra affair.

Technology

Fax machines emerge as an integral business tool around the world. The advent of cheap machines that can transmit documents over telephone lines begins to change the way the business world communicates.

Arts and Letters

Opera: Climbing attendance at Broadway theatres is led by the success of "The Phantom of the Opera" and the Tony-winning "Madame Butterfly."

Arts and Letters

Literature: Toni Morrison (1931-) wins the Pulitzer Prize for fiction for her book "Beloved," a novel about a runaway slave who kills her daughter rather than let her be raised as a slave.

Roosevelt, Eleanor

Franklin Delano Roosevelt Jr. (1914-1988), son of Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt, dies August 17.

Economics

Rodeos become big business as U.S. corporations begin to underwrite large cash prizes for competitors.

Economics

The Ford Motor Company continues its record-setting-trend when the company’s worldwide earnings reach 5.3 billion, the highest to date for any automotive company.

Daily Life

Tokyo’s Disneyland becomes Japan’s favorite play land. It resembles its American counterpart but with a Japanese style; visitors are greeted by a smiling “Mickey-San.”

Daily Life

“No Smoking” signs go up on Northwest Airlines.

Daily Life

“Hypermarkets” become the rage. These mega-size retail stores are as big as 5 football fields and sell everything from bananas to bedroom sets. Kmart and Walmart set up dozens of these “malls without walls.”

Sports

In the Olympic Summer Games in Seoul, South Korea, U.S. diver Greg Louganis repeats his 1984 triumphs by taking 2 gold medals.

Sports

Professional tennis player Steffi Graf (1969- ) of West Germany wins the Grand Slam by taking titles at Wimbledon and the Australian, French, and U.S. Opens

Sports

Women in Sports: Congress enacts the Civil Rights Restoration Act over President Ronald Reagan's veto. It prohibits sex discriminations throughout educational institutions receiving federal funds, restoring Title IX.

Sports

Women in Sports: Black Athletes: Olympic medalist (winter games): Debi Thomas (1967-…) wins the bronze in figure skating.

Popular Culture

The Beatles: The Beatles are inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Lennon (1940-1980), McCartney (1942-) , and Harrison (1943-2001) are also inducted separately in later years (1994, 1999, and 2004, respectively).

Popular Culture

Superman marks the 50th anniversary of his first appearance in Action Comics. A birthday exhibit at the Smithsonian Institution is one of the many tributes to the enduring supermyth.

Religion

Dissident Roman Catholic Archbishop Marcel LeFebvre (1905-1991) defies papal orders by consecrating 4 bishops in Switzerland. The Vatican excommunicates him.

Law

The U.S. Supreme Court declares that the U.S Constitution protects the right of protestors to burn the U.S. flag.

Law

The Twenty-Seventh Amendment to the Constitution, requiring an election of Representatives and Senators before a raise in pay for these positions can take effect, is passed by Congress.

Politics

Thousands of Chinese students and workers demonstrate in Tiananmen Square to protest government policies.

Government

Iran breaks off diplomatic relations with Britain over Salman Rushdie’s (1947-) novel Satanic Verses.

Government

Women’s Firsts: Ileana Ros-Lehtinen (1952- …), of Florida, becomes the first Hispanic woman elected to congress. She serves in the U.S. House of Representatives.

Government

George H. W. Bush (1924-) is inaugurated as the 41st president of the U.S., and J. Danforth Quayle (1947 -) is inaugurated as the 44th Vice President.

War

More than 100,000 Soviet troops withdraw from Afghanistan almost 10years after the USSR invaded the country.

Science

The University of Cincinnati scientists report that even minor exposure to lead can stunt growth in children and make them lose their balance.

Medicine

Cigarette smoking increases the risk of eye cataracts, says Johns Hopkins University.

Arts and Letters

Chinese art draws thousands to U.S. museums when the exhibit “Masterworks of the Ming and Qing: Painting from the Forbidden City” tours 5 U.S. cities.

Discovery

The space shuttle Atlantis returns to Earth after launching the Galileo spacecraft on a 6-year exploration voyage to Jupiter.

Daily Life

Disasters: The oil tanker Exxon Valdez runs aground and spills 240,000 barrels of oil into Prince William Sound.

Daily Life

Fears of nuclear contamination rise after Soviet nuclear submarine sinks off the Norwegian coast following a fire on board.

Sports

Baseball: Pete Rose (1941- ), Cincinnati Reds manager, is banned from baseball for life for betting on games.

Popular Culture

The comic book hero Batman becomes a national phenomenon with the release of the movie "Batman," starring Michael Keaton (1951-) and Jack Nicholson (1937- ).

Popular Culture

The centennial of silent film star Charlie Chaplin (1889-1977) is marked by film festivals worldwide in his honor.

Religion

Women’s Firsts: In Boston, the Reverend Barbara C. Harris (1930- …) becomes the first woman consecrated as a bishop in the Episcopal Church.

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: In Webster v. Reproductive Health Services, 492 U.S. 490 (1989), the Supreme Court affirms the right of states to deny public funding for abortions and to prohibit public hospitals from performing abortions.

Government

Civil Rights Movement: Discrimination against people with disabilities is banned under the Americans with Disabilities Act.

Government

Douglas Wilder (1931- ) of Virginia becomes the first elected African American governor in the United States.

Government

Independence from the Soviet Union is declared by a newly elected parliament in Lithuania.

Government

Mikhail Gorbachev (1931- ) is elected the first executive president of the Soviet Union; at the same time, the Soviet parliament rules that Lithuania’s declaration of independence is invalid.

Government

Women’s Firsts: Dr. Antonia Novello (1944- …) is sworn in as U.S. Surgeon General, becoming the first woman (and first Hispanic) to hold that job.

War

Manuel Noreiga (1938- ) surrenders to U.S. forces.

Technology

NASA reports a major manufacturing flaw in the main mirror of the Hubble Space Telescope that renders its pictures fuzzy and disappointing.

Technology

The U.S. space shuttle Atlantis, with a 5-member crew, completes a secret military mission.

Education

Civil Rights Movement: The public strongly opposes bilingual education.

Roosevelt, Eleanor

Elliot Roosevelt (1910-1990), son of Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt, dies on October 27 of congestive heart failure.

Economics

General Motors unveils the Saturn, a compact car aimed at a young market.

Economics

In an important court decision, Eastman Kodak is ordered to pay Polaroid more that $900 million for patent infringements.

Economics

American Money: A security thread and micro printing are introduced, first in $50 and $100 notes, to deter counterfeiting by advanced copiers and printers.

Daily Life

South African resistance leader, Nelson Mandela (1918- ), is released from prison after more than 27 years.

Sports

Women in Sports: Jennifer Capriati (1976- ), age 13, becomes the youngest player ever to reach the final of a professional tennis tournament.

Sports

Football: The New England Patriots and 3 of its players are fined for demeaning a female sports reporter.

Sports

Women in Sports: The number of women playing college sports has jumped to 160,000.

Popular Culture

"The Simpsons" premier on television.

Popular Culture

Rap music engenders controversy as an album by 2 Live Crew is ruled obscene by a Florida court.

Popular Culture

Russians get their first taste of American-style fast food when a McDonald’s opens in Moscow. Line are long until the prices are doubled.

Popular Culture

"A Chorus Line" closes after 15 years, the longest run in the history of the Broadway theatre.

Government

Lithuanians vote overwhelmingly for independence from the Soviet Union.

Government

Women’s Firsts: On January 2, Sharon Pratt Dixon (1944- …) is sworn in as mayor of Washington, DC, becoming the first black woman to serve as mayor of a major city.

War

Persian Gulf War: A divided Congress gives President Bush (1924- ) the go-ahead on the Persian Gulf War.

War

Persian Gulf War: Operation Desert Storm is launched against Iraq.

War

Persian Gulf War: Kuwait is liberated in the Gulf War.

Science

European scientists produce a significant amount of energy from controlled nuclear fusion for the first time.

Medicine

Alzheimer’s emerges as a major U.S. public health issue. Some 4 million Americans suffer from the incurable disease that claims 100,000 lives yearly. Symptoms are gradual loss of memory, speech, and orientation.

Medicine

The Bush administration initiates a study to find ways to cut the rapid rise in health care costs.

Technology

Computers continue to be miniaturized. Hewlett-Packard introduces a hand-held model that weighs less than a pound.

Technology

During a 6-day flight, the space shuttle Atlantis puts the Gamma Ray Observatory into orbit.

Arts and Letters

New York City’s Carnegie Hall celebrates its centennial.

Arts and Letters

The 200th anniversary of Mozart’s death spurs musical tributes around the world; the largest takes place at New York’s Lincoln Center.

Roosevelt, Eleanor

James “Jimmy” Roosevelt (1907-1991), son of Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt, dies August 13.

Bush, Barbara

President Bush (1924- ) is hospitalized for 2 days for an irregular heartbeat.

Economics

Japan again assumes the title of the world’s largest automaker, turning out almost 10 million cars compared to the 6 million produced by the U.S.

Economics

Both Pan Am and Eastern Airlines go out of business.

Discovery

A radar image of the planet Venus taken by the Magellan spacecraft shows huge volcanoes and large craters.

Sports

Basketball: Led by superstar Michael Jordan, the Chicago Bulls capture their first National Basketball Association championship, defeating the Los Angeles Lakers.

Sports

Basketball: Los Angeles Lakers star Magic Johnson discloses that he has the HIV virus that causes AIDS and retires from basketball.

Sports

Women in Sports: Basketball: The women''s Final Four of college basketball is televised live for the first time. Tennessee edges Virginia 70-67 for its third NCAA title in the first OT game in the tournament''s 10-year history.

Popular Culture

Rap music, reflecting inner-city social conditions, extends its influence to mainstream America through artists such as MC Hammer (1962- ), 2 Live Crew, and Run DMC.

Popular Culture

Country star Garth Brooks (1962-) is the dominant solo performer on the concert and recording scene.

Religion

Pope John Paul II (1920-2205) names 22 new cardinals, including 2 Americans – Archbishops Anthony Bevilacqua of Philadelphia and Roger Mahoney of Los Angeles.

Social Issues

Racism: Four white policemen are indicted by a Los Angeles, California grand jury for the beating of a black motorist, Rodney King. The brutal beating, captured on videotape by an amateur, is widely seen on TV.

Reform

Civil Rights Movement: The passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1991 strengthened existing civil rights laws. However, the acquittal of the white police officers involved in the beating of Rodney King triggered the largest and most violent race riots in many years.

Law

The Twenty-Seventh Amendment to the Constitution, requiring an election of Representatives and Senators before a raise in pay for these positions can take effect, is ratified by two-thirds of the states and added to the Constitution.

Politics

Democrat William J. Clinton (1946- …) is elected the 42nd President of the U.S. and Albet A. Gore (1948-) is elected the 45th Vice President.

Government

Women’s Firsts: Carol Moseley-Braun (1947- …), of Illinois, becomes the first African-American woman elected to the U.S. Senate.

Government

The European Community recognizes Croatia and Slovenia as separate states, effectively ending the Yugoslav Federation, founded in 1918.

Government

Mongolia’s new non-communist constitution takes effect.

Government

Stamps: Full-scale production of U.S. self-adhesive stamps begins.

Government

The Energy Policy Act establishes a permanent 10 percent investment tax credit for solar and geothermal powergenerating equipment.

War

The El Salvador government signs a peace treaty with guerilla forces, formally ending 12 years of civil war.

Technology

Dell Computer brings out a trend-setting 3.5-pound laptop, accelerating the use of these small computers.

Arts and Letters

Women''s Firsts: Poetry: Pulitzer Prize-winning poet Mona Van Duyn (1921-2004) is the first woman chosen as U.S. poet laureate.

Arts and Letters

UNESCO begins a 5-year project to photograph the world’s cultural and natural wonders before they are further harmed by war or environmental problems.

Economics

U.S. unemployment soars to 7.8%, its highest rate since 1983.

Discovery

A sculptured head of a giant bird that was one of the main Mayan gods is discovered in what was the ancient Mayan city of Nakbe.

Discovery

Archeologists uncover Ubar, a 5000-year-old trading city famous for its frankincense, under the desert sands in Oman.

Discovery

Pioneer 10 continues to send back deep-space data 20 years after its launch. 5 billion miles out, the probe still has 7 functioning instruments.

Discovery

U.S. launches the Mars Observer, an unmanned spacecraft designed to orbit and study Mars.

Discovery

Space Exploration: Women’s Firsts: Mae Jemison (1956- …) becomes the first black female astronaut.

Daily Life

Crayola: Crayola multicultural crayons, an assortment of skin tone-based colors that let children more accurately color themselves, are introduced.

Daily Life

Crayola: Crayola brings washability — an all-new innovation to crayons — with the first crayons that wash off walls.

Sports

Europe hosts both Olympics, with the XVI Winter Games in Albertville, France and the XXV Summer Games in Barcelona, Spain.

Sports

Women in Sports: "A League of Their Own," a movie by director Penny Marshall about the first year of the All American Girls Professional Baseball League, is a box office hit, due in large part to the many women who went to see female sports role models on the screen.

Popular Culture

Johnny Carson (1925-2005) retires as host of NBC’s "The Tonight Show" after nearly 30 years.

Popular Culture

A young Elvis Presley (1935-1977) is portrayed on a postage stamp; some $20 million worth are kept by collectors.

Popular Culture

The hit TV show "Murphy Brown" becomes controversial when the campaigning Vice President Dan Quayle (1947- ) says it undermines U.S. moral values by presenting its star as a single mother.

Religion

Bible Lands Museum opens in Jerusalem, Israel, with the purpose of dramatizing the people and events of the Bible in its original environment.

Religion

The Church of England allows the ordination of women priests.

Religion

Bloody religious conflicts erupt in India after Hindus desecrate a historic Muslim mosque.

Social Issues

Racism: A jury in Los Angeles acquits four police officers accused of beating Rodney King, Jr.; the verdict leads to massive rioting and looting.

Social Issues

Native Americans: New Mexico observes Columbus Quincentenary, welcomes Cristobal Colon XX.

Politics

Fidel Castro’s daughter wins political asylum in the U.S.

Government

Czechoslovakia peacefully splits into the Czech Republic and Slovakia; the playwright, Vaclav Havel (1936-), is elected President of the Czech Republic.

Government

Congress passes the Family and Medical Leave Act.

Government

Women’s Firsts: Janet Reno (1938- …) becomes the first woman U.S. attorney general.

Government

William J. Clinton (1946-) is inaugurated as the 42nd President of the U.S. and Albert A. Gore (1948-) is inaugurated as the 45th Vice President.

War

Terrorism: Terrorists bomb the World Trade Center on February 26, killing five.

War

Women’s Firsts: Sheila Widnall (1938- …) becomes the first secretary of a branch of the U.S. military when she is appointed to head the Air Force.

Medicine

The Food and Drug Administration says second hand smoke causes 6,000 U.S. deaths yearly.

Medicine

The measles epidemic in the U.S. is finally over.

Technology

The blurry Hubble Space Telescope is brought into focus by astronauts from the U.S. space shuttle Endeavor, whose astronauts fit new optics and devises that corrected the $3 billion observatory.

Arts and Letters

Women’s Firsts: Literature: Toni Morrison (1931- …) becomes the first African-American woman to win the Nobel Prize for literature.

Hoover, Lou

Allan Henry Hoover (1907-1993), son of Herbert and Lou Hoover, dies November 8.

Clinton, Hillary

The President and First Lady Hillary Clinton (1947- ) push for national health care reform, but the controversial bill succumbs to political pressure.

Economics

Western Europe’s economic slump is the worst in 20 years.

Economics

Ford Motor Company: FMC accomplishes another great fear when five of the United States’ eight top selling vehicles were Fords.

Discovery

Archeologists in Israel uncover a stone monument with text in Aramaic mentioning King David and his descendents-the only known reference to him outside the Bible.

Daily Life

Disasters: Four federal agents are killed in Waco, Texas, after trying to serve an arrest warrant for weapons charges against Branch Davidian sect leader David Koresh (1959-1993), starting a 51-day standoff.

Daily Life

Disasters: The siege at Waco, Texas ends when the FBI moves into the Branch Davidian compound with tear gas and cult members set fire to the compound killing over 80 people.

Daily Life

Holidays: All 50 states join in the observance of Martin Luther King Day.

Daily Life

The History of Toys: H. Ty Warner begins to market understuffed plush bean bag toys called Beanie Babies.

Sports

Women''s Firsts: Women in Sports: Basketball: Ann Meyers becomes the first woman inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame in Springfield, Mass.

Sports

Tennis’s top-ranked player Monica Seles (1973- ) is stabbed in the back by an obsessed German fan of Steffi Graf (1969- ) and has to leave the tennis tour.

Popular Culture

The 1993 Oscar for the best picture goes to "Schindler’s List."

Popular Culture

Tom Hanks (1956- ) is awarded the best actor award for his portrayal of an AIDS victim in the movie entitled "Philadelphia."

Reform

Women's Rights Movement: The Family and Medical Leave Act goes into effect.